Is There a Relationship Between Country Development and Citizens’ Level of Digital Skills?
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Abstract
This paper examines the relationship between the citizens' level of digital skills and the level of country development. Country development is measured by the Gross National Income per capita (GNI p.c.), while the level of digital skills is measured by the World Economic Forum. We gathered data from the World Bank databases for 2019 for 135 countries worldwide. For the analysis, we used correlation analysis. The correlation analysis results show a significant strong positive linear relationship between the level of digital skills and GNI p.c., i.e., the level of country development. The results highlight the important role of country development in developing an adequate level of the crucial skills of the 21st century – digital skills.
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References
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Bejaković, P., & Mrnjavac, Ž. (2020). The importance of digital literacy on the labour market. Employee Relations: The International Journal. 42(4), 921-932.
Bradić-Martinović, A., & Banović, J. (2018). Assessment of Digital Skills in Serbia with Focus on Gender Gap. Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, (1-2), 54-67.
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Comin, D., & Mestieri, M. (2018). If technology has arrived everywhere, why has income diverged?. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 10(3), 137-78.
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Cruz-Jesus, F., Oliveira, T., & Bacao, F. (2018). The global digital divide: evidence and drivers. Journal of Global Information Management, 26(2), 1-26.
Dahlman, C., Mealy, S., & Wermelinger, M. (2016). Harnessing the digital economy for developing countries. OECD Development Center, Working Paper No. 334.
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Ivanović, Đ., & Antonijević, M. (2022). Digital Competences Performance of Serbian Female Entrepreneurs. Megatrend revija: međunarodni časopis za primenjenu ekonomiju, 19(1), 163-176.
Ivanović, Đ., & Simović, V. (2020). An Overview of the research based on digital competences. Monograph: Trends in the Development and application of Information Systems. Serbia, 273-289.
James, J. (2021). Confronting the scarcity of digital skills among the poor in developing countries. Development Policy Review, 39(2), 324-339.
Karjaluoto, H., Mattila, M., & Pento, T. (2002). Factors underlying attitude formation towards online banking in Finland. International journal of bank marketing, 20(6), 261-272.
Kolaković, K., Marinković, V., & Stefanović, S. (2009). Employee Development and knowledge-based Organization. Economic analysis, 42(3-4), 69-77.
Lazić, M., Vukmirović, V., Banović, J., Simović, V., Paunović, M. (2023). Digital Competences as a Precondition for an Inclusive Digital Economy: Is there a Gender Gap among Persons with Disabilities in Serbia? Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education, 1-2, 51-71.
Lee, E. J., Lee, J., & Schumann, D. W. (2002). The influence of communication source and mode on consumer adoption of technological innovations. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 36(1), 1-27.
Maji, S. K., & Laha, A. (2021). The role of digital skill in mitigating digital divide: evidences from Asia-Pacific region. Rajagiri Management Journal, 16(3), 260-271.
Misra, A. (2022). Fostering digital skills in developing countries – what works? Policy note – July 2022. Blavatnik School of Government, University of Oxford. Available on https://www.bsg.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2022-08/2022-07-Fostering-digital-skills-Archita-Misra.pdf 26.9.2022.
Moustakas, A., Athanasiadis, A., Papamathaiou, A., & Tsakanikas, A. (2018). Measuring the economic impact of digital skills in Greece: challenges ahead. Athens: Foundation for economic & industrial research.
Nielsen, L. (2011). IMF working paper–classifications of countries based on their level of development: how it is done and how it could be done. International Monetary Fund.
Nipo, D.T., & Bujang, I. (2014). Global digital divide: determinants of cross-country ICT development with special reference to Southeast Asia. International Journal of Business and Economic Development, 2(3), 83-95.
OECD (2004). The ICT Productivity Paradox- Evidence from Micro Data, OECD Economic Studies No. 38, OECD, Paris
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Olczyk, M., & Kuc-Czarnecka, M. (2022). Digital transformation and economic growth-DESI improvement and implementation. Technological and Economic Development of Economy, 28, 775-803.
Otioma, C., Madureira, A.M., & Martinez, J. (2019). Spatial analysis of urban digital divide in Kigali, Rwanda. GeoJournal, 84(3), 719-741.
Pachis, A. (2018). Determinants of fixed broadband diffusion: an international study. MPRA Paper No. 96774.
Paset, #DE4A, Digital Development Partnership, World Bank Group. (2021). Digital Skills: The Why, the What, and the How” Methodological Guidebook for Preparing Digital Skills Country Action Plans for Higher Education and TVET. Available on https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/0a4174d70030f27cc66099e862b3ba79-0200022021/original/DSCAP-MethodGuidebook-Part1.pdf 25.9.2022.
Paulozzi, L. J., Ryan, G. W., Espitia-Hardeman, V. E., & Xi, Y. (2007). Economic development's effect on road transport-related mortality among different types of road users: a cross-sectional international study. Accident analysis & prevention, 39(3), 606-617.
Rozite, K., Balina, S., & Freimane, R. (2019). Digital competence rating and economic development in the EU. New Challenges of Economic and Business Development – 2019: Incentives for Sustainable Economic Growth Univ Latvia, Riga, Latvia, 16–18 May 2019; pp. 701–708.
Song, Z., Wang, C., & Bergmann, L. (2020). China’s prefectural digital divide: spatial analysis and multivariate determinants of ICT diffusion. International Journal of Information Management, 52, 102072, 1-12.
UNCTAD. (May 15, 2018). Digital skills are not optional in today’s tech-savvy world. Available on https://unctad.org/news/digital-skills-are-not-optional-todays-tech-savvy-world 25.8.2022.
UNESCO. (March 15, 2018). Digital skills critical for jobs and social inclusion. Available on https://en.unesco.org/news/digital-skills-critical-jobs-and-social-inclusion 25.9.2022.
Urvashi, A., Chetty, K., Gcora, N., Josie, J., & Mishra, V. (2017). Bridging the Digital Divide: Skills For The New Age. Policy Brief, G20 Insights. 05.04. 2017. April 5, 2017 https://www.g20-insights.org/policy_briefs/bridging-digital-divide-skills-new-age/ 26.9.2022.
Vicente, M.R., & Lopez, A.J. (2008). Some empirical evidence on internet diffusion in the new member states and candidate countries of the European union. Applied Economics Letters, 15(13),1015-1018.
Wiley. (2021). Digital Skills Gap Index 2021. Whitepaper. Available on https://dsgi.wiley.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/DSGI-whitepaper.pdf 20.9.2022.
World Bank. (July 1, 2019). New country classifications by income level: 2019-2020. Available on https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/new-country-classifications-income-level-2019-2020 18.9.2022
World Bank. (n.d.). GCI 4.0: Digital skills among population. Available on https://govdata360.worldbank.org 18.9.2022.
World Bank. (n.d.). GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$). Available on https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD 18.9.2022.
Aniela, B., Marian, Z., & Badea, D. N. (2019). Economic growth and digital skills: An overview on the eu-28 country clusters. Annals of the „Constantin Brâncuşi”, 6, 78-85.
Baliamoune‐Lutz, M. (2003). An analysis of the determinants and effects of ICT diffusion in developing countries. Information Technology for development, 10(3), 151-169.
Banović, J., & Pavlović, D. (2021). Information and Communication Technology’s Skills among the Working Population of Serbia. Economic Analysis, 54(2), 118-127.
Bara, A. (2016). Diffusion and adoption of bank financial innovation in Zimbabwe: An external factor analysis. African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, 8(4), 357-368.
Bejaković, P., & Mrnjavac, Ž. (2020). The importance of digital literacy on the labour market. Employee Relations: The International Journal. 42(4), 921-932.
Bradić-Martinović, A., & Banović, J. (2018). Assessment of Digital Skills in Serbia with Focus on Gender Gap. Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, (1-2), 54-67.
Braun, A., März, A., Mertens, F., & Nisser, A. (2020). Rethinking education in the digital age. Brussels European Union. pp. 1, 20.
Cedefop (2015). Skills, Qualifications and Jobs in the EU: The Making of a Perfect Match? Evidence from Cedefop’s European Skills and Jobs Survey, Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
Center for Strategic and International Studies - CSIS (July 18, 2022). The Digital Literacy Imperative. Available on https://www.csis.org/analysis/digital-literacy-imperative 25.9.2022.
Comin, D., & Mestieri, M. (2018). If technology has arrived everywhere, why has income diverged?. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 10(3), 137-78.
Committee for the Coordination of Statistical Activities (2020). How COVID-19 is changing the world: a statistical perspective. Available on https://unstats.un.org/unsd/ccsa/documents/covid19-report-ccsa.pdf 20.9.2022.
Cruz-Jesus, F., Oliveira, T., & Bacao, F. (2018). The global digital divide: evidence and drivers. Journal of Global Information Management, 26(2), 1-26.
Dahlman, C., Mealy, S., & Wermelinger, M. (2016). Harnessing the digital economy for developing countries. OECD Development Center, Working Paper No. 334.
Dewan, S., Ganley, D. and Kraemer, K.L. (2005). Across the digital divide: a cross-country multitechnology analysis of the determinants of its penetration, Journal of the Association for Information Systems, 6(12), 409-430.
Digital Skills & Jobs Platform (May 6, 2022). Which European countries have the most digital skills?. Available on https://digital-skills-jobs.europa.eu/en/latest/news/which-european-countries-have-most-digital-skills. 26.9.2022.
Domazet, I., Zubović, J., & Lazić, M. (2018). Driving factors of Serbian competitiveness: Digital economy and ICT. Strategic management, 23(1), 20-28.
Eshet, Y. (2004). Digital literacy: A conceptual framework for survival skills in the digital era. Journal of educational multimedia and hypermedia, 13(1), 93-106.
EU4Digital (June 16, 2021). Tackling the digital skills gap: a key priority for the EU and the Eastern Partnership - EU4Digital Available on https://eufordigital.eu/tackling-the-digital-skills-gap-a-key-priority-for-the-eu-and-the-eastern-partnership/ 26.9.2022.
European Parliament and Council. (2006). Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of December 18 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning. Official Journal of the European Union. Available on https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:394:0010:0018:en:PDF 25.9.2022.
European Commission. (n.d.). Digital skills and jobs. Available on https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/digital-skills-and-jobs 25.9.2022.
Fang, M.L., Canham, S.L., Battersby, L., Sixsmith, J., Wada, M., & Sixsmith, A. (2019). Exploring privilege in the digital divide: implications for theory, policy, and practice. The Gerontologist, 59(1), e1-e15.
Huxhold, O., Hees, E., & Webster, N.J. (2020). Towards bridging the grey digital divide: changes in internet access and its predictors from 2002 to 2014 in Germany. European Journal of Ageing, 17(3), 1-10.
International Telecommunication Union – ITU. (2018a). Digital Skills Toolkit. Available on https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Digital-Inclusion/Documents/ITU%20Digital%20Skills%20Toolkit.pdf 25.9.2022.
International Telecommunication Union – ITU. (2018b). Measuring the Information Society Report. Volume 1. Retrieved from https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/publications/misr2018/MISR-2018-Vol-1-E.pdf
International Telecommunication Union – ITU. (2021). Measuring digital development Facts and figures 2021. Available on https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/FactsFigures2021.pdf 20.9.2022.
International Telecommunication Union – ITU. (n.d.a). Skills development for the digital economy Available on https://www.itu.int/en/mediacentre/backgrounders/Pages/skills-development-digital-economy.aspx 25.9.2022.
International Telecommunication Union – ITU. (n.d.c). ITU ICT SDG indicators. Available on https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/SDGs-ITU-ICT-indicators.aspx 29.9.2022.
International Telecommunication Union- ITU. (n.d.b). ITU World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators database. Available on https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspx 16.9.2022.
Ivanović, Đ., & Antonijević, M. (2022). Digital Competences Performance of Serbian Female Entrepreneurs. Megatrend revija: međunarodni časopis za primenjenu ekonomiju, 19(1), 163-176.
Ivanović, Đ., & Simović, V. (2020). An Overview of the research based on digital competences. Monograph: Trends in the Development and application of Information Systems. Serbia, 273-289.
James, J. (2021). Confronting the scarcity of digital skills among the poor in developing countries. Development Policy Review, 39(2), 324-339.
Karjaluoto, H., Mattila, M., & Pento, T. (2002). Factors underlying attitude formation towards online banking in Finland. International journal of bank marketing, 20(6), 261-272.
Kolaković, K., Marinković, V., & Stefanović, S. (2009). Employee Development and knowledge-based Organization. Economic analysis, 42(3-4), 69-77.
Lazić, M., Vukmirović, V., Banović, J., Simović, V., Paunović, M. (2023). Digital Competences as a Precondition for an Inclusive Digital Economy: Is there a Gender Gap among Persons with Disabilities in Serbia? Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education, 1-2, 51-71.
Lee, E. J., Lee, J., & Schumann, D. W. (2002). The influence of communication source and mode on consumer adoption of technological innovations. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 36(1), 1-27.
Maji, S. K., & Laha, A. (2021). The role of digital skill in mitigating digital divide: evidences from Asia-Pacific region. Rajagiri Management Journal, 16(3), 260-271.
Misra, A. (2022). Fostering digital skills in developing countries – what works? Policy note – July 2022. Blavatnik School of Government, University of Oxford. Available on https://www.bsg.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2022-08/2022-07-Fostering-digital-skills-Archita-Misra.pdf 26.9.2022.
Moustakas, A., Athanasiadis, A., Papamathaiou, A., & Tsakanikas, A. (2018). Measuring the economic impact of digital skills in Greece: challenges ahead. Athens: Foundation for economic & industrial research.
Nielsen, L. (2011). IMF working paper–classifications of countries based on their level of development: how it is done and how it could be done. International Monetary Fund.
Nipo, D.T., & Bujang, I. (2014). Global digital divide: determinants of cross-country ICT development with special reference to Southeast Asia. International Journal of Business and Economic Development, 2(3), 83-95.
OECD (2004). The ICT Productivity Paradox- Evidence from Micro Data, OECD Economic Studies No. 38, OECD, Paris
OECD, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UN ECLAC), the Development Bank of Latin America (CAF), and the European Commission (EC). (2020). Latin American Economic Outlook 2020: Digital Transformation for Building Back Better, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e6e864fb-en. Available on https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/e7a00fd6-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/e7a00fd6-en 20.9.2022.
Olczyk, M., & Kuc-Czarnecka, M. (2022). Digital transformation and economic growth-DESI improvement and implementation. Technological and Economic Development of Economy, 28, 775-803.
Otioma, C., Madureira, A.M., & Martinez, J. (2019). Spatial analysis of urban digital divide in Kigali, Rwanda. GeoJournal, 84(3), 719-741.
Pachis, A. (2018). Determinants of fixed broadband diffusion: an international study. MPRA Paper No. 96774.
Paset, #DE4A, Digital Development Partnership, World Bank Group. (2021). Digital Skills: The Why, the What, and the How” Methodological Guidebook for Preparing Digital Skills Country Action Plans for Higher Education and TVET. Available on https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/0a4174d70030f27cc66099e862b3ba79-0200022021/original/DSCAP-MethodGuidebook-Part1.pdf 25.9.2022.
Paulozzi, L. J., Ryan, G. W., Espitia-Hardeman, V. E., & Xi, Y. (2007). Economic development's effect on road transport-related mortality among different types of road users: a cross-sectional international study. Accident analysis & prevention, 39(3), 606-617.
Rozite, K., Balina, S., & Freimane, R. (2019). Digital competence rating and economic development in the EU. New Challenges of Economic and Business Development – 2019: Incentives for Sustainable Economic Growth Univ Latvia, Riga, Latvia, 16–18 May 2019; pp. 701–708.
Song, Z., Wang, C., & Bergmann, L. (2020). China’s prefectural digital divide: spatial analysis and multivariate determinants of ICT diffusion. International Journal of Information Management, 52, 102072, 1-12.
UNCTAD. (May 15, 2018). Digital skills are not optional in today’s tech-savvy world. Available on https://unctad.org/news/digital-skills-are-not-optional-todays-tech-savvy-world 25.8.2022.
UNESCO. (March 15, 2018). Digital skills critical for jobs and social inclusion. Available on https://en.unesco.org/news/digital-skills-critical-jobs-and-social-inclusion 25.9.2022.
Urvashi, A., Chetty, K., Gcora, N., Josie, J., & Mishra, V. (2017). Bridging the Digital Divide: Skills For The New Age. Policy Brief, G20 Insights. 05.04. 2017. April 5, 2017 https://www.g20-insights.org/policy_briefs/bridging-digital-divide-skills-new-age/ 26.9.2022.
Vicente, M.R., & Lopez, A.J. (2008). Some empirical evidence on internet diffusion in the new member states and candidate countries of the European union. Applied Economics Letters, 15(13),1015-1018.
Wiley. (2021). Digital Skills Gap Index 2021. Whitepaper. Available on https://dsgi.wiley.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/DSGI-whitepaper.pdf 20.9.2022.
World Bank. (July 1, 2019). New country classifications by income level: 2019-2020. Available on https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/new-country-classifications-income-level-2019-2020 18.9.2022
World Bank. (n.d.). GCI 4.0: Digital skills among population. Available on https://govdata360.worldbank.org 18.9.2022.
World Bank. (n.d.). GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$). Available on https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD 18.9.2022.