Cognitive Microfoundations for the Economics of Nonrival Goods
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Abstract
This paper shows that the economics of nonrival goods cannot be fully comprehended without taking into account the role of intelligence differences among economic agents. The analysis focuses on Paul Romer’s contributions and explains that the study of the economics of ideas (memes) through an institutional lens alone misses the crucial economic implications of the interplay between genes and memes. Ideas appear to be nonrival if and only to the extent that we neglect wide individual differences in the capacity to appropriate ideas. Differences in intelligence among humans make the theoretically and politically appealing non-rivalry of ideas a practical falsehood.
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References
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Chiappe, D., & MacDonald, K (2005) The evolution of domain-general mechanisms in intelligence and learning. Journal of General Psychology, 132(1): 5-40.
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Cochran, G., Hardy, J., & Harpending, H (2007) Natural history of Ashkenazi intelligence. Journal of Biosocial Science: 1-35.
Colom R et al (2009) Gray matter correlates of fluid, crystallized, and spatial intelligence: Testing the P-FIT model Intelligence 37(2): 124-135.
Colom R et al (2010) Improvement in working memory is not related to increased intelligence scores Intelligence 38(5): 497-505.
Day E A, Arthur W Jr, Edwards B D, Bell S T, Bennett W Jr, Tubre T C, & Mendoza J L (2005) Ability based pairing strategies in the team-based training of a complex skill: Does the cognitive ability of your training partner matter? Intelligence, 33: 39-65.
Deary, I.J., Spinath, F. & Bates, T. C (2006) Genes and intelligence. European Journal of Human Genetics, 14: 690-700.
Deary IJ, Strand S, Smith P, Fernandes C (2007) Intelligence and educational achievement Intelligence 35(1): 13-21.
Dickerson, R. E (2006) Exponential correlation of IQ and the wealth of nations Intelligence, 34(3): 291-295.
Duncan, J; Parr, A; Woolgar, A; Thompson, R; Bright, P; Cox, S; Bishop, S; Nimmo-Smith, I (2008) Goal neglect and Spearman's g: Competing parts of a complex task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 137(1): 131-148.
Fernandez F, Garner CG (2007) Over-inhibition: a model for developmental intellectual disability Trends in Neurosciences 30(10): 497-503.
Fields DR (2008) White matter in learning, cognition and psychiatric disorders Trends in Neurosciences 31(7): 361-370.
Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., DeFries, J. C., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K (2008) Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(2): 201-225.
Gale, C. R., Hatch, S. L., Batty, G, D., & Deary, I. J (2009) Intelligence in childhood and risk of psychological distress in adulthood: the 1958 National Child Development Survey and the 1970 British Cohort Study. Intelligence 37(6): 592-599.
Gelade G A (2008) IQ, cultural values, and the technological achievement of nations Intelligence, 36(6): 711-718.
Gordon, R. A (1997) Everyday Life as an Intelligence Test: Effects of Intelligence and Intelligence Context. Intelligence 24: 203-320.
Gottfredson, L. S (1985) Education as a valid but fallible signal of worker quality: Reorienting an old debate about the functional basis of the occupational hierarchy. In A. C. Kerchoff (Eds.) Research in Sociology of Education and Socialization, Vol. 5 (pp. 119-165). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Gottfredson, L. S (2009) Logical fallacies used to dismiss the evidence on intelligence testing. In R. Phelps (Ed.), The true measure of educational and psychological tests: Correcting fallacies about the science of testing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; pp. 11-65.
Gottfredson, L. S (in press). Intelligence and social inequality: Why the biological link? In T. Chamorro-Premuzic, A. Furhnam, & S. von Stumm (Eds.), Handbook of Individual Differences. Wiley-Blackwell.
Heckman J (2008) Schools, Skills and Synapses Economic Inquiry, 46(3): 289-324.
Helpman, E (2004) The Mystery of Economic Growth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Heylighen F. & Chielens K (2008) Evolution of Culture, Memetics, in: Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science, ed. B. Meyers (Springer)
Hunt E, Wittmann W (2008) National intelligence and national prosperity Intelligence 36(1): 1-9.
Jeong, H. & Chi, M.T.H (2007) Knowledge convergence during collaborative learning. Instructional Science 35: 287–315.
Jensen A (2001) Vocabulary and general intelligence Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24: 1109-1110.
Jones, G. and Schneider, W. J (2006) Intelligence, Human Capital, and Economic Growth: A Bayesian Averaging of Classical Estimates (BACE) Approach. Journal of Economic Growth 11: 71-93.
Kuncel, N. R., Hezlett, S. A., & Ones, D. S (2004) Academic performance, career potential, creativity, and job performance: Can one construct explain them all? J. of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1): 148-161.
Lipton P (2004) Inference to the best explanation London: Routledge, 2nd edition
Lövdén M, Bäckman L, Lindenberger U, Schaefer S, Schmiedek F (2010) A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity Psychological Bulletin 136(4): 659-76.
Lubinski, D., Benbow, C. P., Webb, R. M., & Bleske-Rechek, A (2006) Tracking exceptional human capital over two decades. Psychological Science 17(3): 194-199.
Lynn R (2009) What has caused the Flynn effect? Secular increases in the Development Quotients of infants Intelligence 37(1):16-24.
Lynn R, Harvey J, Nyborg, H (2009) Average intelligence predicts atheism rates across 137 nations Intelligence 37(1): 11-15.
Lynn R, Kanazawa S (2008) How to explain high Jewish achievement: The role of intelligence and values Personality and Individual Differences 44(4): 801-808.
Lynn, R. and Vanhanen, T (2006) IQ and global inequality. Washington Summit Books.
Manning J (2007) The androgen receptor gene: A major modifier of speed of neuronal transmission and intelligence?. Medical Hypotheses, 68 (4): 802-804.
Mercado E (2008) Neural and cognitive plasticity: From maps to minds Psychological Bulletin 134(1): 109-137.
Miller, G. F., & Penke, L (2007) The evolution of human intelligence and the coefficient of additive genetic variance in human brain size. Intelligence, 35(2): 97-114.
Moody D E (2009) Can intelligence be increased by training on a task of working memory? Intelligence 37: 327-328.
Murray, C (2002) IQ and Income Inequality in a Sample of Sibling Pairs from Advantaged Family Backgrounds. American Economic Review 92(2): 339-343.
Murray C (2008) Real Education. Four Simple Truths for Bringing America's Schools Back to Reality New York: Crown Forum.
Nie H N, Golde S (2008) Does Education Really Make You Smarter? Miller-McCune May 19 Issue, available at http://www.miller-mccune.com/article/349
Nie H N, Golde S, Butler D M (2007) Education and Verbal Ability over Time: Evidence from Three Multi-Time Sources (Working Paper available at http://www.stanford.edu/group/siqss/cgi-bin/downloads/Education_SIQSS.pdf)
Park, G., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P (2007) Contrasting intellectual patterns for creativity in the arts and sciences: Tracking intellectually precocious youth over 25 years. Psychological Science 18(11): 948-952.
Plomin, R., Kovas, Y., & Haworth, C. M. A (2007) Generalist genes: Genetic links between brain, mind, and education. Mind, Brain,and Education, 1(1): 11-19.
Pol, H. E. H., Schnack, H. G., Posthuma, D., et al (2006) Genetic contributions to human brain morphology and intelligence. Journal of Neuroscience, 26(40): 10235-10242.
Preckel, F., Holling, H. & Wiese, M (2006) Intelligence and creativity in gifted and non-gifted students: An investigation of threshold theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 40: 159-170.
Ram F (2007) IQ and economic growth: Further augmentation of Mankiw–Romer–Weil model Economics Letters 94(1): 7-11.
Rescher N (2006) Epistemetrics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Reuter, M., Roth, S., Holve, K., & Hennig, J (2006) Identification of first candidate genes for creativity: A pilot study. Brain Research,1069(1): 190-197.
Rindermann, H (2007) The g-factor of international cognitive ability comparisons: The homogenity of results in PISA, TIMSS, PIRLS and IQ-tests across nations European Journal of Personality 21: 667–706.
Rindermann, H (2008) Relevance of education and intelligence at the national level for the economic welfare of people Intelligence 36(2): 127-142.
Romer P (1990) Endogenous Technological Change Journal of Political Economy 98( 5): S71-102.
Romer P (2007) Economic Growth The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, David R. Henderson, ed. Liberty Fund.
Rushton, J. P. and Jensen, A. R (2005) Thirty years of research on Black-White differences in cognitive ability. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law 11: 235-294.
Shaw P (2007) Intelligence and the developing human brain BioEssays 29(10): 962 -73.
Silvia PJ (2008) Another look at creativity and intelligence: Exploring higher-order models and probable confounds Personality and Individual Differences, 44(4): 1012-1021.
Simandan D (2006) The g factor and the geographical law of place-induced cognitive emergence. In Economic Science in a Knowledge Society, Proceedings of the International Conference ‘Research and Education in the Innovation Era, Timisoara: Mirton Publishing House, pp. 80-90, ISBN (10) 973-52-0014-7.
Simandan D (2008) A geographical theory of exceptional human performance: economic and policy implications from the standpoint of consequentialist ethics Romanian Journal of Business Ethics 2(1): 19-45.
Simandan D (2009a) Intelligence and Environmental Complexity Philobiblon. Theme Issue: The Environment vol. XIV, pp. 13-44.
Simandan D (2009b) Economic Geography: Industrialisation, In R Kitchin & N Thrift, Eds., International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, Oxford: Elsevier, volume 5: 419-425.
Simandan D (2010) Roads to perdition in the knowledge-economy Environment and Planning A 42(7): 1519-1520.
Simandan D, Boggs J (2007) The world needs more Canada, or the other way around? A g theory perspective on Canadian immigration policy “Canadian immigration policy” Session of The Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers, San Francisco, 17-21 April.
Simonton D K (2007) Creativity: Specialized expertise or general cognitive processes? In M J Roberts (Ed) Integrating the mind Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
Simonton D K (2008) Scientific talent, training, and performance: Intellect, personality, and genetic endowment. Review of General Psychology, 12: 28-46.
Spence, M (1973) Job market signaling. Quarterly Journal of Economics 87: 355–374.
Stanovich, K. E (2004) The robot's rebellion: Finding meaning in the age of Darwin. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Stanovich, K. E (2009) The Psychology of Rational Thought: What Intelligence Tests Miss New Haven: Yale University Press.
Sternberg, R.J (2002) Smart People Are Not Stupid, But They Sure Can Be Foolish. The Imbalance Theory of Foolishness. In Sternberg, R.J., ed. Why Smart People Can Be So Stupid. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Ullen et al (2008) Intelligence and Variability in a Simple Timing Task Share Neural Substrates in the Prefrontal White Matter, The Journal of Neuroscience 28(16):4238-4243.
Wai, J., Lubinski, D. and Benbow, C. P (2005) Vocational achievement and creativity among intellectually precocious youth: An age 13 to age 33 longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97: 484-492.
Whetzel D L, and McDaniel M A (2006) Prediction of national wealth Intelligence 34 (5): 449-458.
Watkins, M. W., Lei, P. and Canivez, G. L (2007) Psychometric intelligence and achievement: A cross-lagged panel analysis. Intelligence. 35(1): 59-68.
Brouwers, S. A., Mishra, R. C., & Van de Vijver , F.J.R (2006) Schooling and everyday cognitive development among Kharwar children in India: A natural experiment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30: 559-567.
Chiappe, D., & MacDonald, K (2005) The evolution of domain-general mechanisms in intelligence and learning. Journal of General Psychology, 132(1): 5-40.
Clark G (2007) A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Cochran, G., Hardy, J., & Harpending, H (2007) Natural history of Ashkenazi intelligence. Journal of Biosocial Science: 1-35.
Colom R et al (2009) Gray matter correlates of fluid, crystallized, and spatial intelligence: Testing the P-FIT model Intelligence 37(2): 124-135.
Colom R et al (2010) Improvement in working memory is not related to increased intelligence scores Intelligence 38(5): 497-505.
Day E A, Arthur W Jr, Edwards B D, Bell S T, Bennett W Jr, Tubre T C, & Mendoza J L (2005) Ability based pairing strategies in the team-based training of a complex skill: Does the cognitive ability of your training partner matter? Intelligence, 33: 39-65.
Deary, I.J., Spinath, F. & Bates, T. C (2006) Genes and intelligence. European Journal of Human Genetics, 14: 690-700.
Deary IJ, Strand S, Smith P, Fernandes C (2007) Intelligence and educational achievement Intelligence 35(1): 13-21.
Dickerson, R. E (2006) Exponential correlation of IQ and the wealth of nations Intelligence, 34(3): 291-295.
Duncan, J; Parr, A; Woolgar, A; Thompson, R; Bright, P; Cox, S; Bishop, S; Nimmo-Smith, I (2008) Goal neglect and Spearman's g: Competing parts of a complex task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 137(1): 131-148.
Fernandez F, Garner CG (2007) Over-inhibition: a model for developmental intellectual disability Trends in Neurosciences 30(10): 497-503.
Fields DR (2008) White matter in learning, cognition and psychiatric disorders Trends in Neurosciences 31(7): 361-370.
Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Young, S. E., DeFries, J. C., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K (2008) Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(2): 201-225.
Gale, C. R., Hatch, S. L., Batty, G, D., & Deary, I. J (2009) Intelligence in childhood and risk of psychological distress in adulthood: the 1958 National Child Development Survey and the 1970 British Cohort Study. Intelligence 37(6): 592-599.
Gelade G A (2008) IQ, cultural values, and the technological achievement of nations Intelligence, 36(6): 711-718.
Gordon, R. A (1997) Everyday Life as an Intelligence Test: Effects of Intelligence and Intelligence Context. Intelligence 24: 203-320.
Gottfredson, L. S (1985) Education as a valid but fallible signal of worker quality: Reorienting an old debate about the functional basis of the occupational hierarchy. In A. C. Kerchoff (Eds.) Research in Sociology of Education and Socialization, Vol. 5 (pp. 119-165). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Gottfredson, L. S (2009) Logical fallacies used to dismiss the evidence on intelligence testing. In R. Phelps (Ed.), The true measure of educational and psychological tests: Correcting fallacies about the science of testing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; pp. 11-65.
Gottfredson, L. S (in press). Intelligence and social inequality: Why the biological link? In T. Chamorro-Premuzic, A. Furhnam, & S. von Stumm (Eds.), Handbook of Individual Differences. Wiley-Blackwell.
Heckman J (2008) Schools, Skills and Synapses Economic Inquiry, 46(3): 289-324.
Helpman, E (2004) The Mystery of Economic Growth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Heylighen F. & Chielens K (2008) Evolution of Culture, Memetics, in: Encyclopedia of Complexity and Systems Science, ed. B. Meyers (Springer)
Hunt E, Wittmann W (2008) National intelligence and national prosperity Intelligence 36(1): 1-9.
Jeong, H. & Chi, M.T.H (2007) Knowledge convergence during collaborative learning. Instructional Science 35: 287–315.
Jensen A (2001) Vocabulary and general intelligence Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24: 1109-1110.
Jones, G. and Schneider, W. J (2006) Intelligence, Human Capital, and Economic Growth: A Bayesian Averaging of Classical Estimates (BACE) Approach. Journal of Economic Growth 11: 71-93.
Kuncel, N. R., Hezlett, S. A., & Ones, D. S (2004) Academic performance, career potential, creativity, and job performance: Can one construct explain them all? J. of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1): 148-161.
Lipton P (2004) Inference to the best explanation London: Routledge, 2nd edition
Lövdén M, Bäckman L, Lindenberger U, Schaefer S, Schmiedek F (2010) A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity Psychological Bulletin 136(4): 659-76.
Lubinski, D., Benbow, C. P., Webb, R. M., & Bleske-Rechek, A (2006) Tracking exceptional human capital over two decades. Psychological Science 17(3): 194-199.
Lynn R (2009) What has caused the Flynn effect? Secular increases in the Development Quotients of infants Intelligence 37(1):16-24.
Lynn R, Harvey J, Nyborg, H (2009) Average intelligence predicts atheism rates across 137 nations Intelligence 37(1): 11-15.
Lynn R, Kanazawa S (2008) How to explain high Jewish achievement: The role of intelligence and values Personality and Individual Differences 44(4): 801-808.
Lynn, R. and Vanhanen, T (2006) IQ and global inequality. Washington Summit Books.
Manning J (2007) The androgen receptor gene: A major modifier of speed of neuronal transmission and intelligence?. Medical Hypotheses, 68 (4): 802-804.
Mercado E (2008) Neural and cognitive plasticity: From maps to minds Psychological Bulletin 134(1): 109-137.
Miller, G. F., & Penke, L (2007) The evolution of human intelligence and the coefficient of additive genetic variance in human brain size. Intelligence, 35(2): 97-114.
Moody D E (2009) Can intelligence be increased by training on a task of working memory? Intelligence 37: 327-328.
Murray, C (2002) IQ and Income Inequality in a Sample of Sibling Pairs from Advantaged Family Backgrounds. American Economic Review 92(2): 339-343.
Murray C (2008) Real Education. Four Simple Truths for Bringing America's Schools Back to Reality New York: Crown Forum.
Nie H N, Golde S (2008) Does Education Really Make You Smarter? Miller-McCune May 19 Issue, available at http://www.miller-mccune.com/article/349
Nie H N, Golde S, Butler D M (2007) Education and Verbal Ability over Time: Evidence from Three Multi-Time Sources (Working Paper available at http://www.stanford.edu/group/siqss/cgi-bin/downloads/Education_SIQSS.pdf)
Park, G., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P (2007) Contrasting intellectual patterns for creativity in the arts and sciences: Tracking intellectually precocious youth over 25 years. Psychological Science 18(11): 948-952.
Plomin, R., Kovas, Y., & Haworth, C. M. A (2007) Generalist genes: Genetic links between brain, mind, and education. Mind, Brain,and Education, 1(1): 11-19.
Pol, H. E. H., Schnack, H. G., Posthuma, D., et al (2006) Genetic contributions to human brain morphology and intelligence. Journal of Neuroscience, 26(40): 10235-10242.
Preckel, F., Holling, H. & Wiese, M (2006) Intelligence and creativity in gifted and non-gifted students: An investigation of threshold theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 40: 159-170.
Ram F (2007) IQ and economic growth: Further augmentation of Mankiw–Romer–Weil model Economics Letters 94(1): 7-11.
Rescher N (2006) Epistemetrics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Reuter, M., Roth, S., Holve, K., & Hennig, J (2006) Identification of first candidate genes for creativity: A pilot study. Brain Research,1069(1): 190-197.
Rindermann, H (2007) The g-factor of international cognitive ability comparisons: The homogenity of results in PISA, TIMSS, PIRLS and IQ-tests across nations European Journal of Personality 21: 667–706.
Rindermann, H (2008) Relevance of education and intelligence at the national level for the economic welfare of people Intelligence 36(2): 127-142.
Romer P (1990) Endogenous Technological Change Journal of Political Economy 98( 5): S71-102.
Romer P (2007) Economic Growth The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, David R. Henderson, ed. Liberty Fund.
Rushton, J. P. and Jensen, A. R (2005) Thirty years of research on Black-White differences in cognitive ability. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law 11: 235-294.
Shaw P (2007) Intelligence and the developing human brain BioEssays 29(10): 962 -73.
Silvia PJ (2008) Another look at creativity and intelligence: Exploring higher-order models and probable confounds Personality and Individual Differences, 44(4): 1012-1021.
Simandan D (2006) The g factor and the geographical law of place-induced cognitive emergence. In Economic Science in a Knowledge Society, Proceedings of the International Conference ‘Research and Education in the Innovation Era, Timisoara: Mirton Publishing House, pp. 80-90, ISBN (10) 973-52-0014-7.
Simandan D (2008) A geographical theory of exceptional human performance: economic and policy implications from the standpoint of consequentialist ethics Romanian Journal of Business Ethics 2(1): 19-45.
Simandan D (2009a) Intelligence and Environmental Complexity Philobiblon. Theme Issue: The Environment vol. XIV, pp. 13-44.
Simandan D (2009b) Economic Geography: Industrialisation, In R Kitchin & N Thrift, Eds., International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, Oxford: Elsevier, volume 5: 419-425.
Simandan D (2010) Roads to perdition in the knowledge-economy Environment and Planning A 42(7): 1519-1520.
Simandan D, Boggs J (2007) The world needs more Canada, or the other way around? A g theory perspective on Canadian immigration policy “Canadian immigration policy” Session of The Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers, San Francisco, 17-21 April.
Simonton D K (2007) Creativity: Specialized expertise or general cognitive processes? In M J Roberts (Ed) Integrating the mind Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
Simonton D K (2008) Scientific talent, training, and performance: Intellect, personality, and genetic endowment. Review of General Psychology, 12: 28-46.
Spence, M (1973) Job market signaling. Quarterly Journal of Economics 87: 355–374.
Stanovich, K. E (2004) The robot's rebellion: Finding meaning in the age of Darwin. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Stanovich, K. E (2009) The Psychology of Rational Thought: What Intelligence Tests Miss New Haven: Yale University Press.
Sternberg, R.J (2002) Smart People Are Not Stupid, But They Sure Can Be Foolish. The Imbalance Theory of Foolishness. In Sternberg, R.J., ed. Why Smart People Can Be So Stupid. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Ullen et al (2008) Intelligence and Variability in a Simple Timing Task Share Neural Substrates in the Prefrontal White Matter, The Journal of Neuroscience 28(16):4238-4243.
Wai, J., Lubinski, D. and Benbow, C. P (2005) Vocational achievement and creativity among intellectually precocious youth: An age 13 to age 33 longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97: 484-492.
Whetzel D L, and McDaniel M A (2006) Prediction of national wealth Intelligence 34 (5): 449-458.
Watkins, M. W., Lei, P. and Canivez, G. L (2007) Psychometric intelligence and achievement: A cross-lagged panel analysis. Intelligence. 35(1): 59-68.