Gender Inequality in Education in sub-Saharan Africa
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Sep 27, 2017
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Abstract
This paper examines the issue of gender inequality in education in sub-Saharan Africa. It argues that in sub-Saharan African countries, the provision of education for boys and girls is uneven, and biased through gender, location, class and region- resulting to high illiteracy rates for girls and women. The paper concludes that political instability and violence, poverty and economical challenges, negative cultural values, female genital mutilation, early marriage, and sexual harassment are some of the leading contributors to gender inequality in education. Other factors that exacerbate gender inequality are lack of gender responsiveness among the teachers, ineffective teaching, and lack of learning materials, poor learning environment, and impact of HIV/AIDS. The paper contends that gender inequality in education holds back the growth of individuals, the development of countries and the evolution of societies to the disadvantage of both men and women if not addressed-should be at the beginning. Strategies and interventions that have the potential to eliminate gender disparities in education in developing countries are discussed in this paper.
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References
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[3] Bailey, S. (1992). How Schools Shortchange Girls: The AAUW Report. New York, NY: Marlowe & Company.
[4] Bendera, S. J. and M. W. Mboya (eds.) 1999. Gender and Education in Tanzanian Schools. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Dar es Salaam University Press.
[5] Bennel, P. (2005). “The impact of the AIDS Schooling of Orphans and other Directly Affected Children in Sub-Saharan Africa.” The Journal of Development Studies, 41(3), 467-488.
[6] Boyden, J. and Ryder, P. (1996). The provision of education to children affected by armed conflict. Oxford:
[7] Buchmann, C. (1999). Poverty and educational inequality in sub-Saharan Africa. Prospects. Volume 29, Number 4, 503-515.
[8] Clark, A. and Elaine, M. (eds.) (1998). Gender in the Secondary Curriculum: Balancing the Books. London and New York: Routledge.
[9] Cockerton, C. (2004). “Education in Postcolonial Sub-Saharan Africa”. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 1 A–G
[10] Dagne, H. G. (1994). Early marriage in Northern Ethiopia. Reprod Health Matters. (4):35 38.
[11] Delano, L. (1998). Sexual Abuse and Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa. Advocates forYouth. Washington, DC.
[12] Duncan, W. A. (1989). Engendering school learning: Science attitudes and achievement\ among girls and boys in Botswana. Institute of International Education. Stockholm: University of Stockholm, 1989.
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[16] Gordon, R. (1998). “Girls cannot think as boys do": socializing children through the Zimbabwean school system.” Gender and Development. Vol 6. No 2. July.
[17] Jensen. R. and Thornton, R. (2003). “Early female marriage in the developing world.” Gender and Development 11(2): 9-19.
[18] Haffejee, S. (2006) Waiting opportunities: Adolescent girls’ experiences of gender based violence at schools. Johannesburg: Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation.
[19] Hillman and Jenkner, E. (2004). “Educating Children in Poor Countries”. Economic Issues. No.33
[20] Kane, E. (1996). Gender, Culture and Learning. Washington D.C. Advancing Basic Education and Literacy 2 Project.
[21] Kaya, H. O. (2005). “The Debt Crisis and Its Effect on African Women and Children”. Issue 197. Pambazuka News
[22] Khadija, A. B. (1997). Rural women and girls in the war in Sierra Leone. Conciliation Resources. London. 173 Upper Street
[23] King, El M. and Anne M. H. (eds.) (1997). Women's Education in Developing Countries Barriers, Benefits, and Policies. Baltimore and London: Published for the World Bank by the Johns Hopkins University Press.
[24] The World Bank (1993). Women's Education in Developing Countries Washington, DC: The World Bank.
[25] Kiragu, K. (1995). “Female genital mutilation: a reproductive health concern.” Popul Rep J 23(33, Supply):1- 4.
[26] Kristof, N. (2009). “Does Menstruation Keep Girls Out of School?” New York Times. Published: September, 4.
[27] Logan, B .I., and Beoku-Betts, J.A. (1996). “Women and Education in Africa: An Analysis of Economic and Sociocultural Factors Influencing Observed Trends.” Journal of Asian and African Studies, 3. 3–4, 217–240.
[28] Manuh, T (1998). “Africa Recovery Briefing Paper.” United Nation Publication. New York. Number 11, April.
[29] Marshall, C.S. & Reihartz, J. (1997). “Gender issues in the classroom”. Clearinghouse, 70 (6), 333-338.
[30] Meel, B. L. (2003). The myth of child rape as a cure for HIV/AIDS in Transkei: a case report. Medicine, Science and the Law, Vol. 43(1).
[31] Mulama, J. (2010). “Nomadic Schools for Mobile”. Inter Press Service News Agency. October 29.
[32] Nwomonoh, J. (1998). Education and Development in Africa: A Contemporary Survey. London: International Scholars Publication.
[33] Obura, A. (1991). Changing Images: Portrayal of Girls and Women in Kenyan. Textbooks. Nairobi: Act Pres.
[34] Ofeibea, Q. A. (2003). Fighting Prejudice and Sexual Harassment of Girls in School. allAfrica.com.
[35] Ombati, V. F. O. (2010). Women in Society: The Participation of Women in Educational Leadership n Kenya Municipal Primary Schools. Saarbrucken, Germany. LAP Lambert Acad. Publ.
[36] Orenstein, P. (1994). Schoolgirls: Young Women, Self-Esteem and the Confidence Gap. New York, NY: Doubleday.
[37] Oyaro, K. (2010). Teenage Mothers Denied Education. Inter Press Service News Agency May, 23.
[38] Papanek, H. (1982) “Purdah: separate worlds and symbolic shelter”, In H. Papanek & G. Minault, (eds.) Separate worlds: studies of purdah in South Asia. (pp1-53) Delhi: Chanakya Publishers
[39] Prinsloo, S. (2006) “Sexual harassment and violence in South African schools”. The South African Journal of Education, Vol. 26(2)
[40] Richardson, A. (2000). “Social injustice: the irony of African schooling disruption.” Cross Cultural perspectives in child advocacy. (1-26).
[41] Riddell, R. C. (1999). The end of Foreign Aid to Africa? Concerns About Donor Policies. Oxford Journals Social Sciences African Affairs. Volume 98, Issue392 pp. 309-335.
[42] Ruth, L. et al. (2009). Girls Count: A Global Investment & Action Agenda Reprint (Washington, DC: Center for Global Development.
[43] Sadker, D., Sadker, M. (1994). Failing at Fairness: How Our Schools Cheat Girls. Toronto, ON: Simon & Schuster Inc.
[44] Schultz, T. P. (1999)."Health and Schooling Investments in Africa". The Journal of Economic Perspectives. 13, no. 3
[45] Sharon, L. (2005). For girls in Africa, education is uphill fight. New York Times. Published: Friday, December, 23.
[46] Shapiro, D. and Tambashe, B.O. (2001). “Gender, Poverty, Family Structure, and Investments in Children's Education in Kinshasa, Congo”. Economics of Education Review 20(4):359-375, August.
[47] Suzanne, L-M. (2002). “On the virgin cleansing myth: gendered bodies, AIDS and ethno medicine”. African Journal of AIDS Research, Vol. 1(2).
[48] Tanye, M. (2008). “Access and Barriers to Education for Ghanaian Women and Girls”. Interchange, Volume 39, Number 2, 167-184,
[49] The Real Truth (2007). Armed Conflict Costs Africa $18 Billion Each Year. The Real Truth Magazine. Vol. 8, No. IX, November
[50] UNAIDS (2009). Progress report on the global response to HIV/AIDS epidemic. Geneva. UNAIDS (2009). Report on the Global HIV/AIDS Epidemic. Geneva.
[51] UNICEF (2006). School Fees for Africa: Coming to grips with an elusive promise. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund. New York.
[52] UNESCO (2009). Regional overview: Sub-Saharan Africa; overcoming inequality. Paris: UNESCO. EFA. Global Monitoring Report. Paris: UNESCO
[53] UNESCO (2008). Regional overview: Sub-Saharan Africa; overcoming inequality. Paris: UNESCO. EFA. Global Monitoring Report. Paris: UNESCO
[54] UNFPA. 2004. Child Marriage Advocacy Programme: Fact Sheet on Child Marriage and Early Union.
[55] Wamahiu, S., and Wangoi, N. (1995). “Schoolgirl Drop -out and Adolescent Pregnancy: Counting Cost”. Basic Education Forum, Vol. 6. P.1-22.
[56] Wanjama, L. N, and Kimani, E. L. (1995). „Justification in Making Gender a Critical Variable in Education”. Basic Education Forum, Vol. 6 23-45.
[57] Watkins, K (1999). Education Now: Breaking the Cycle of Poverty. Oxford: Oxfam International.
[58] Whiteside, A (2002). “Poverty and HIV/AIDS in Africa.” The Third World. Quarterly, Vol. 23, No.2, pp. 313-32
[59] World Bank (1995), “Education and Development,” in Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank Review. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
[60] World Bank (1988). Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization and Growth. World Bank, Washington, DC