Feminist Critique of Ghana’s Women’s Entrepreneurship Policies
Article Sidebar
Published
Feb 17, 2023
Main Article Content
Abstract
Women’s entrepreneurship is an important medium for poverty reduction, economic growth and development. Nonetheless, it faces critical challenges that limit it from realizing its full potential. Feminist theories bring to the fore the diverse conundrums of women’s entrepreneurship and how to address them. This paper aimed to examine Ghana’s women’s entrepreneurship policies from feminist theoretical perspectives to determine how the policies address gendered barriers and support women’s entrepreneurship efforts. Premised on the transformative research paradigm, the paper involves content analysis of 14 purposively-sampled Ghana’s public policy documents. Consistent with policy expectations of the feminist theories, it was found that there are policies that seek to address gendered discourses, promote change of social structures in support of women’s venturing and enhance women entrepreneurs’ access to resources. Nonetheless, there are still areas that need further attention in all the three theoretical perspectives, particularly in pursuit of change in social structures and gender equality in access to resources. Although the policies justifiably tilt more towards the informal sector, inadequate attention to women operating in the formal sector could serve as a disincentive to the growth and development of their ventures and a deterrent to the graduation of more informal enterprises into the formal economy.
Article Details
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Once the manuscript is accepted for publication, authors shall transfer the copyright to the publisher. If the submitted manuscript is not accepted for printing by the journal, the authors shall retain all their rights. The following rights on the manuscript are transferred to the publisher, including any supplementary materials and any parts, extracts or elements of the manuscript:
- the right to reproduce and distribute the manuscript in printed form, including print-on-demand;
- the right to print prepublications, reprints and special editions of the manuscript;
- the right to translate the manuscript into other languages;
- the right to reproduce the manuscript using photomechanical or similar means including, but not limited to photocopy, and the right to distribute these copies;
- the right to reproduce and distribute the manuscript electronically or optically using and all data carriers or storage media, and especially in machine readable/digitalized form on data carriers such as hard drive, CD-ROM, DVD, Blu-ray Disc (BD), Mini Disc, data tapes, and the right to reproduce and distribute the article via these data carriers;
- the right to store the manuscript in databases, including online databases, as well as the right to transmit the manuscript in all technical systems and modes;
- the right to make the manuscript available to the public or to closed user groups on individual demand, for use on monitors or other readers (including e-books), and in printable form for the user, either via the Internet, online service, or via internal or external networks.
Authors reserve the copyright to published articles and have the right to use the article in the same manner like third parties in accordance with the licence Attribution-Non-Commercial-Non-Derivate 4.0 International (CC BY NC ND). Thereby they must quote the basic bibliographic data of the source article published in the journal (authors, article title, journal title, volume, pagination).
References
[1] Adom, Kwame, and Golda Anambane. 2019. "Understanding the Role of Culture and Gender Stereotypes in Women Entrepreneurship through the Lens of the Stereotype Threat Theory." Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 12(1): 100–124.
[2] Adom, Kwame, and Irene T. Asare-Yeboa. 2016. "An Evaluation of Human Capital Theory and Female Entrepreneurship in Sub-Sahara Africa: Some Evidence from Ghana." International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 8(4): 402–435.
[3] Ahl, Helene, and Susan Marlow. 2017. "Postfeminist Times: New Opportunities or Business as Usual?" Paper presented at the 2017 RENT conference, Lund.
[4] Ali, Jabir, and Sana Shabir. 2017. "Does Gender Make a Difference in Business Performance? Evidence from a Large Enterprise Survey Data of India." Gender in Management: An International Journal, 32(3): 218–233.
[5] Bacchi, Carol. 2017. "Policies as Gendering Practices: Re-viewing Categorical Distinctions." Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 38(1): 20–41.
[6] Bamfo, Bylon A., and Felicity Asiedu-Appiah. 2012. "Investigating the Challenges and Prospects of Female Entrepreneurs in Ghana." International Journal of Business and Management Studies, 1(1): 43–54.
[7] Boateng, Simon, and Kwabena Osei Poku. 2019. "Accessing Finance among Women-owned Small Businesses: Evidence from Lower Manya Krobo Municipality, Ghana." Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 9(2019): 1–17.
[8] Boohene, Rosemond. 2009. "The Relationships among Gender, Strategic Capabilities, and Performance of Small Retail Firms in Ghana." Journal of African Business, 10(1): 121–138.
[9] Bosma, Niels, Stephen Hill, Aileen Ionescu-Somers, Donna Kelley, Jonathan Levie, and Anna Tarnawa. 2020. "Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2019/2020 Global Report." London, Global Entrepreneurship Research Association, London Business School.
[10] Chea, Ashford, C. 2008. "Factors That Influence the Survival of Women-Owned Small Business Start-Ups in the City of Tema, Ghana." International Business Research, 1(3): 130–144.
[11] Creswell, John W. 2014. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (4 ed.). London: SAGE Publications, Inc.
[12] de Silva, Thilini, Sirkku M. Barbutiu, Kutoma Wakanuma, and Gehan, S. Dhameeth. 2021. Empowerment through Women Entrepreneurship: A Case From The Beauty Salon Sector in Sri Lanka. "Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education", (1-2): 121–146.
[13] Effah, John, Emmanuel Owusu-Oware, and Richard Boateng. 2020. "Biometric Identification for Socioeconomic Development in Ghana." Information Systems Management, 37(2): 136–149.
[14] Esquivel, Valeria, and Corina R. Enríquez. 2020. "The Beijing Platform for Action Charted a Future We Still Need to Bring Up: Building Feminist Economic Policy." Gender & Development, 28(2): 281–298.
[15] Fischer, Eileen M., A. Rebecca Reuber, and Lorraine S. Dyke. 1993. "A Theoretical Overview and Extension of Research on Sex, Gender, and Entrepreneurship." Journal of Business Venturing, 8(2): 15 –168.
[16] Foss, Lene, Colette Henry, Helene Ahl, and Geir H. Mikalsen. 2019. "Women’s Entrepreneurship Policy Research: A 30-Year Review of the Evidence." Small Business Economics, 53(2): 409–429.
[17] Ghana Statistical Service. 2013. "2010 Population and Housing Census Report: Women and Men in Ghana". Accra: Ghana Statistical Service.
[18] Graue, Carolin. 2015. "Qualitative Data Analysis." International Journal of Sales, Retailing & Marketing, 4(9): 5–14.
[19] Hampel-Milagrosa, Aimée. 2011. "The Role of Regulation, Tradition and Gender in Doing Business: Case Study and Survey Report on a Two-Year Research Project in Ghana." Bonn: The German Development Institute.
[20] Hartsock, Nancy. C. 1997. Comment on Hekman’s "Truth and Method: Feminist Standpoint Theory Revisited": Truth or Justice? Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 22(2): 367–374.
[21] Hart, David M. 2003. "Entrepreneurship Policy: What it is and Where it Came from. " In The Emergence of Entrepreneurship Policy. Governance, Start-Ups and Growth in the US Knowledge Economy, ed. David. M. Hart, 3–19. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[22] Henry, Colette, Barbara Orser, Susan Coleman, Lene Foss, and Friederike Welter. 2017. "Women’s Entrepreneurship Policy: A 13-Nation Cross-Country Comparison." International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 9(3): 206–228.
[23] Herrington, Mike, and Donna Kelley. 2012. "African Entrepreneurship: Sub-Saharan African Regional Report." Canada: International Development Research Centre and the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor.
[24] Kuada, John. 2009. "Gender, Social Networks, and Entrepreneurship in Ghana." Journal of African Business, 10(1): 85–103.
[25] Lascoumes, Pierre, and Patrick Le Galès. 2007. "Introduction: Understanding Public Policy through its Instruments—From the Nature of Instruments to the Sociology of Public Policy Instrumentation." Governance, 20(1): 1–21.
[26] Lent, Monica. 2020. "Everyday Entrepreneurship among Women in Northern Ghana: A Practice Perspective. " Journal of Small Business Management, 58:(4): 777–805.
[27] Longoria, Claudia. 2018. "Women Entrepreneurship in Developing, Developed and Transitional Economies–Differences and Similarities." Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, 3(4): 73–82.
[28] Makarem, Yasmeen, Beverly D. Metcalfe, and Fida Afiouni. 2019. "A Feminist Poststructuralist Critique of Talent Management: Toward a More Gender Sensitive Body of Knowledge." BRQ Business Research Quarterly, 22(3): 181–193.
[29] Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection. 2015. National Gender Policy. Accra: Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection.
[30] Neergaard, Helle, and Claus Thrane. 2011. "The Nordic Welfare Model: Barrier or Facilitator of Women's Entrepreneurship in Denmark?" International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 3(2): 88–104.
[31] Obeng, Bernard A., Paul Robson, and Helen Haugh. 2014. "Strategic Entrepreneurship and Small Firm Growth in Ghana." International Small Business Journal, 32(5): 501–524.
[32] O’Brien Hallstein, Lynn. 2000. "Introduction to Feminist Standpoint Theory." Women’s Studies in Communication 23(1): 1–13.
[33] Overå, Ragnhild. 2003. "Gender Ideology and Manoeuvring Space for Female Fisheries Entrepreneurs." Institute of African Studies Research Review, 19(2): 49–62.
[34] Overå, Ragnhild. 2007. "When Men Do Women's Work: Structural Adjustment, Unemployment and Changing Gender Relations in the informal Economy of Accra, Ghana." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 45(4): 539–563.
[35] Overå, Ragnhild. 2017. "Local Navigations in a Global Industry: The Gendered Nature of Entrepreneurship in Ghana’s Oil and Gas Service Sector." The Journal of Development Studies, 53(3): 361–374.
[36] Panda, Swati. 2018. "Constraints Faced by Women Entrepreneurs in Developing Countries: Review and Ranking." Gender in Management: An International Journal, 33(4): 315–331.
[37] Peprah, Veronica, Daniel Buor, and David Forkuor. 2019. "Characteristics of Informal Sector Activities and Challenges Faced by Women in Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana." Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1): 1656383.
[38] Pinkovetskaia, Iuliia S., Liudmila I. Kryukova, Diego A. Campillo, and Magda J. Rojas-Bahamon. 2019. "Female Entrepreneurship: Types of Economic Activity." Journal of History Culture and Art Research, 8(2): 253–265.
[39] Ratten, Vanessa, and Kayhan Tajeddini. 2018. "Women’s Entrepreneurship and Internationalization: Patterns and Trends." International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 38(9/10): 780–793.
[40] Sallah, Cynthia A., and Livingstone D. Caesar. 2020. "Intangible Resources and the Growth of Women Businesses: Empirical Evidence from an Emerging Market Economy." Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 12(3): 329–355.
[41] Schindler, Kati. 2010. "Credit for What? Informal Credit as a Coping Strategy of Market Women in Northern Ghana." The Journal of Development Studies, 46(2): 234–253.
[42] Scott, W. Richard. 2014. Institutions and Organizations: Ideas, Interests, and Identities. London: SAGE Publications, Inc.
[43] Seshie-Nasser, Hellen A., and Abena D. Oduro. 2018. "Women-owned businesses and household welfare." International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 10(4): 310–331.
[44] Sowatey, Emmanuel, Hanson Nyantakyi-Frimpong, Paul Mkandawire, Godwin Arku, Lucia Hussey, and Aluizah Amasaba. 2018. "Spaces of Resilience, Ingenuity, and Entrepreneurship in Informal Work in Ghana." International Planning Studies, 23(4): 327–339.
[45] Steele, Claude M., and Joshua Aronson. 1995. "Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5): 797–811.
[46] Terjesen, Siri, Niels Bosma, and Erik Stam. 2016. "Advancing Public Policy for High‐Growth, Female, and Social Entrepreneurs." Public Administration Review, 76(2): 230–239.
[47] The World Bank. 2018. An Operational Guide to Women’s Entrepreneurship Programs in the World Bank. Washington, D. C.: The World Bank.
[48] The World Bank. 2022. "Female Entrepreneurship Resource Point – Introduction and Module 1: Why Gender Matters". https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/gender/publication/femaleentrepreneursp-resource-point-introduction-and-module-1-why-gender-matters
[49] Thiel, Alena. 2017. "Entangled Temporalities: Ghana's National Biometric Identity Registration Project." Anthropology Today, 33(1): 3–5.
[50] Williams, Colin C., and Abbi Kedir. 2018. "Contesting the Underperformance Thesis of Women Entrepreneurs: Firm-Level Evidence from South Africa." International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development, 17(1): 21–35.
[51] Wylie, Alison. 2017. "Feminist Philosophy of Social Science. " In Ann Garry, Serene J. Khader, and Alison Stone (Eds.), The Routledge Companion to Feminist Philosophy: 328–340. New York: Routledge.
[2] Adom, Kwame, and Irene T. Asare-Yeboa. 2016. "An Evaluation of Human Capital Theory and Female Entrepreneurship in Sub-Sahara Africa: Some Evidence from Ghana." International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 8(4): 402–435.
[3] Ahl, Helene, and Susan Marlow. 2017. "Postfeminist Times: New Opportunities or Business as Usual?" Paper presented at the 2017 RENT conference, Lund.
[4] Ali, Jabir, and Sana Shabir. 2017. "Does Gender Make a Difference in Business Performance? Evidence from a Large Enterprise Survey Data of India." Gender in Management: An International Journal, 32(3): 218–233.
[5] Bacchi, Carol. 2017. "Policies as Gendering Practices: Re-viewing Categorical Distinctions." Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 38(1): 20–41.
[6] Bamfo, Bylon A., and Felicity Asiedu-Appiah. 2012. "Investigating the Challenges and Prospects of Female Entrepreneurs in Ghana." International Journal of Business and Management Studies, 1(1): 43–54.
[7] Boateng, Simon, and Kwabena Osei Poku. 2019. "Accessing Finance among Women-owned Small Businesses: Evidence from Lower Manya Krobo Municipality, Ghana." Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 9(2019): 1–17.
[8] Boohene, Rosemond. 2009. "The Relationships among Gender, Strategic Capabilities, and Performance of Small Retail Firms in Ghana." Journal of African Business, 10(1): 121–138.
[9] Bosma, Niels, Stephen Hill, Aileen Ionescu-Somers, Donna Kelley, Jonathan Levie, and Anna Tarnawa. 2020. "Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2019/2020 Global Report." London, Global Entrepreneurship Research Association, London Business School.
[10] Chea, Ashford, C. 2008. "Factors That Influence the Survival of Women-Owned Small Business Start-Ups in the City of Tema, Ghana." International Business Research, 1(3): 130–144.
[11] Creswell, John W. 2014. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (4 ed.). London: SAGE Publications, Inc.
[12] de Silva, Thilini, Sirkku M. Barbutiu, Kutoma Wakanuma, and Gehan, S. Dhameeth. 2021. Empowerment through Women Entrepreneurship: A Case From The Beauty Salon Sector in Sri Lanka. "Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education", (1-2): 121–146.
[13] Effah, John, Emmanuel Owusu-Oware, and Richard Boateng. 2020. "Biometric Identification for Socioeconomic Development in Ghana." Information Systems Management, 37(2): 136–149.
[14] Esquivel, Valeria, and Corina R. Enríquez. 2020. "The Beijing Platform for Action Charted a Future We Still Need to Bring Up: Building Feminist Economic Policy." Gender & Development, 28(2): 281–298.
[15] Fischer, Eileen M., A. Rebecca Reuber, and Lorraine S. Dyke. 1993. "A Theoretical Overview and Extension of Research on Sex, Gender, and Entrepreneurship." Journal of Business Venturing, 8(2): 15 –168.
[16] Foss, Lene, Colette Henry, Helene Ahl, and Geir H. Mikalsen. 2019. "Women’s Entrepreneurship Policy Research: A 30-Year Review of the Evidence." Small Business Economics, 53(2): 409–429.
[17] Ghana Statistical Service. 2013. "2010 Population and Housing Census Report: Women and Men in Ghana". Accra: Ghana Statistical Service.
[18] Graue, Carolin. 2015. "Qualitative Data Analysis." International Journal of Sales, Retailing & Marketing, 4(9): 5–14.
[19] Hampel-Milagrosa, Aimée. 2011. "The Role of Regulation, Tradition and Gender in Doing Business: Case Study and Survey Report on a Two-Year Research Project in Ghana." Bonn: The German Development Institute.
[20] Hartsock, Nancy. C. 1997. Comment on Hekman’s "Truth and Method: Feminist Standpoint Theory Revisited": Truth or Justice? Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 22(2): 367–374.
[21] Hart, David M. 2003. "Entrepreneurship Policy: What it is and Where it Came from. " In The Emergence of Entrepreneurship Policy. Governance, Start-Ups and Growth in the US Knowledge Economy, ed. David. M. Hart, 3–19. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[22] Henry, Colette, Barbara Orser, Susan Coleman, Lene Foss, and Friederike Welter. 2017. "Women’s Entrepreneurship Policy: A 13-Nation Cross-Country Comparison." International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 9(3): 206–228.
[23] Herrington, Mike, and Donna Kelley. 2012. "African Entrepreneurship: Sub-Saharan African Regional Report." Canada: International Development Research Centre and the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor.
[24] Kuada, John. 2009. "Gender, Social Networks, and Entrepreneurship in Ghana." Journal of African Business, 10(1): 85–103.
[25] Lascoumes, Pierre, and Patrick Le Galès. 2007. "Introduction: Understanding Public Policy through its Instruments—From the Nature of Instruments to the Sociology of Public Policy Instrumentation." Governance, 20(1): 1–21.
[26] Lent, Monica. 2020. "Everyday Entrepreneurship among Women in Northern Ghana: A Practice Perspective. " Journal of Small Business Management, 58:(4): 777–805.
[27] Longoria, Claudia. 2018. "Women Entrepreneurship in Developing, Developed and Transitional Economies–Differences and Similarities." Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, 3(4): 73–82.
[28] Makarem, Yasmeen, Beverly D. Metcalfe, and Fida Afiouni. 2019. "A Feminist Poststructuralist Critique of Talent Management: Toward a More Gender Sensitive Body of Knowledge." BRQ Business Research Quarterly, 22(3): 181–193.
[29] Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection. 2015. National Gender Policy. Accra: Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection.
[30] Neergaard, Helle, and Claus Thrane. 2011. "The Nordic Welfare Model: Barrier or Facilitator of Women's Entrepreneurship in Denmark?" International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 3(2): 88–104.
[31] Obeng, Bernard A., Paul Robson, and Helen Haugh. 2014. "Strategic Entrepreneurship and Small Firm Growth in Ghana." International Small Business Journal, 32(5): 501–524.
[32] O’Brien Hallstein, Lynn. 2000. "Introduction to Feminist Standpoint Theory." Women’s Studies in Communication 23(1): 1–13.
[33] Overå, Ragnhild. 2003. "Gender Ideology and Manoeuvring Space for Female Fisheries Entrepreneurs." Institute of African Studies Research Review, 19(2): 49–62.
[34] Overå, Ragnhild. 2007. "When Men Do Women's Work: Structural Adjustment, Unemployment and Changing Gender Relations in the informal Economy of Accra, Ghana." The Journal of Modern African Studies, 45(4): 539–563.
[35] Overå, Ragnhild. 2017. "Local Navigations in a Global Industry: The Gendered Nature of Entrepreneurship in Ghana’s Oil and Gas Service Sector." The Journal of Development Studies, 53(3): 361–374.
[36] Panda, Swati. 2018. "Constraints Faced by Women Entrepreneurs in Developing Countries: Review and Ranking." Gender in Management: An International Journal, 33(4): 315–331.
[37] Peprah, Veronica, Daniel Buor, and David Forkuor. 2019. "Characteristics of Informal Sector Activities and Challenges Faced by Women in Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana." Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1): 1656383.
[38] Pinkovetskaia, Iuliia S., Liudmila I. Kryukova, Diego A. Campillo, and Magda J. Rojas-Bahamon. 2019. "Female Entrepreneurship: Types of Economic Activity." Journal of History Culture and Art Research, 8(2): 253–265.
[39] Ratten, Vanessa, and Kayhan Tajeddini. 2018. "Women’s Entrepreneurship and Internationalization: Patterns and Trends." International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 38(9/10): 780–793.
[40] Sallah, Cynthia A., and Livingstone D. Caesar. 2020. "Intangible Resources and the Growth of Women Businesses: Empirical Evidence from an Emerging Market Economy." Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 12(3): 329–355.
[41] Schindler, Kati. 2010. "Credit for What? Informal Credit as a Coping Strategy of Market Women in Northern Ghana." The Journal of Development Studies, 46(2): 234–253.
[42] Scott, W. Richard. 2014. Institutions and Organizations: Ideas, Interests, and Identities. London: SAGE Publications, Inc.
[43] Seshie-Nasser, Hellen A., and Abena D. Oduro. 2018. "Women-owned businesses and household welfare." International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 10(4): 310–331.
[44] Sowatey, Emmanuel, Hanson Nyantakyi-Frimpong, Paul Mkandawire, Godwin Arku, Lucia Hussey, and Aluizah Amasaba. 2018. "Spaces of Resilience, Ingenuity, and Entrepreneurship in Informal Work in Ghana." International Planning Studies, 23(4): 327–339.
[45] Steele, Claude M., and Joshua Aronson. 1995. "Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5): 797–811.
[46] Terjesen, Siri, Niels Bosma, and Erik Stam. 2016. "Advancing Public Policy for High‐Growth, Female, and Social Entrepreneurs." Public Administration Review, 76(2): 230–239.
[47] The World Bank. 2018. An Operational Guide to Women’s Entrepreneurship Programs in the World Bank. Washington, D. C.: The World Bank.
[48] The World Bank. 2022. "Female Entrepreneurship Resource Point – Introduction and Module 1: Why Gender Matters". https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/gender/publication/femaleentrepreneursp-resource-point-introduction-and-module-1-why-gender-matters
[49] Thiel, Alena. 2017. "Entangled Temporalities: Ghana's National Biometric Identity Registration Project." Anthropology Today, 33(1): 3–5.
[50] Williams, Colin C., and Abbi Kedir. 2018. "Contesting the Underperformance Thesis of Women Entrepreneurs: Firm-Level Evidence from South Africa." International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development, 17(1): 21–35.
[51] Wylie, Alison. 2017. "Feminist Philosophy of Social Science. " In Ann Garry, Serene J. Khader, and Alison Stone (Eds.), The Routledge Companion to Feminist Philosophy: 328–340. New York: Routledge.