Gender Gap in Entrepreneurial Intention, Reasoning, Self-Efficacy, and Education Preferences Among University Students: an Entrepreneurial Event Theory Perspective
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Abstract
This study presents a gender-focused perspective of entrepreneurship education programs, aiming to understand variations in entrepreneurial intention, reasoning on entrepreneurship, self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial education preferences. The present research grounds on Entrepreneurial Event Theory to examine entrepreneurial intention, desirability, and feasibility in the context of entrepreneurship education. The research was conducted in Germany in 2021 and included a sample of 156 university students. The study deploys the Mann-Whitney U Test to examine gender differences among university students regarding entrepreneurship. The findings highlight a heightened perception of risk among female students, influencing their focus on positive/negative entrepreneurial events compared to male students. Moreover, the research reveals a greater inclination among females to engage in both curricular and extracurricular entrepreneurship education activities, corroborating previous studies suggesting greater benefits for female students in such programs. The study also underscores the importance of distinguishing between curricular and extracurricular offerings, indicating promising avenues for future entrepreneurship education research. Overall, this investigation contributes new insights and explanations regarding gender dynamics in entrepreneurship education, shedding light on potential areas for further exploration in the field.
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References
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[20] Molino, M., Dolce, V., Cortese, C. G., & Ghislieri, C. (2018). Personality and social support as determinants of entrepreneurial intention. Gender differences in Italy. PloS one, 13(6), e0199924. https://doi.org/journal.pone.0199924
[21] Monica, J., & Anuradha, P. S. (2024). Entrepreneurial Attitude and Entrepreneurial Intentions of Female Engineering Students: Mediating Roles of Passion and Creativity. Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, 1–2, 19–39. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee24.12.pp19-39
[22] Mozahem, N. A. (2021). Gender differences in entrepreneurial self-efficacy: An educational perspective. The International Journal of Management Education, 19(3), 100535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100535
[23] Mueller, S. L., & Conway Dato-on, M. (2013). A cross cultural study of gender-role orientation and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 9, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-011-0187-y
[24] Nowiński, W., Haddoud, M. Y., Lančarič, D., Egerová, D., & Czeglédi, C. (2019). The impact of entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and gender on entrepreneurial intentions of university students in the Visegrad countries. Studies in Higher Education, 44(2), 361–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2017.1365359
[25] Paunović, I., & Bog, P. (2009). Uticaj veličine grupe na motivisanost polaznika u uvodnim kursevima. Prilozi, 6(1).
[26] Pelegrini, G. C., & Moraes, G. H. S. M. de. (2022). Does gender matter? A university ecosystem, self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention analysis in Brazilian universities. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 37(2), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-01-2021-0007
[27] Pergelova, A., Angulo-Ruiz, F., Manolova, T. S., & Yordanova, D. (2023). Entrepreneurship education and its gendered effects on feasibility, desirability and intentions for technology entrepreneurship among STEM students. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 15(2), 191–228. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-08-2022-0139
[28] Saadaoui, A., Mohamad, A., & Abd Rani, S. H. (2024). Investigating the Relationship between University Environment and Female Student’s Entrepreneurial Thinking in Algeria. Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, 1–2, 115–140. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee24.12.pp115-140
[29] Schlaegel, C., & Koenig, M. (2014). Determinants of Entrepreneurial Intent: A Meta–Analytic Test and Integration of Competing Models. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38(2), 291–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12087
[30] Shapero, A., & Sokol, L. (1982). Social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In C. A. Kent, D. L. Sexton, & K. H. Vesper (Eds.), Encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 72–90). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1497759
[31] Slavinski, T., Todorović, M., Vukmirović, V., & Montenegro, A. M. (2020). Women, entrepreneurship and education: Descriptive bibliometric analysis based on scopus database. Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, 3–4, 181–201. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee20.34.pp181-201
[32] van Ewijk, A. R., & Belghiti-Mahut, S. (2019). Context, gender and entrepreneurial intentions: How entrepreneurship education changes the equation. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 11(1), 75–98. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-05-2018-0054
[33] Westhead, P., & Solesvik, M. Z. (2016). Entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intention: Do female students benefit? International Small Business Journal, 34(8), 979–1003. https://doi.org/10.1177/026624261561253
[34] Wilson, F., Kickul, J., & Marlino, D. (2007). Gender, entrepreneurial self–efficacy, and entrepreneurial career intentions: Implications for entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 387–406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00179.x
[2] Ajzen, I. (2011). The theory of planned behaviour: Reactions and reflections. In Psychology & Health (Bd. 26, Nummer 9, S. 1113–1127). Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2011.613995
[3] Ajzen, I. (2020). The theory of planned behavior: Frequently asked questions. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2(4), 314–324. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.195
[4] Arshad, M., Farooq, O., Sultana, N., & Farooq, M. (2016). Determinants of individuals’ entrepreneurial intentions: A gender-comparative study. Career Development International, 21(4), 318–339. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-10-2015-0135
[5] Bagheri, A., & Lope Pihie, Z. A. (2014). The moderating role of gender in shaping entrepreneurial intentions: Implications for vocational guidance. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 14, 255–273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10775-014-9269-z
[6] Barber, D., Ghouse, S. M., Gibson, S. G., & Harris, M. L. (2021). Gender and exposure differences in entrepreneurial attitudes of Indian university students. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 44(4), 435. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJESB.2021.119728
[7] Brandstätter, H. (2011). Personality aspects of entrepreneurship: A look at five meta-analyses. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(3), 222–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.007
[8] Dabic, M., Daim, T., Bayraktaroglu, E., Novak, I., & Basic, M. (2012). Exploring gender differences in attitudes of university students towards entrepreneurship: An international survey. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 4(3), 316–336. https://doi.org/10.1108/17566261211264172
[9] El Harbi, S., Anderson, A., & Mansour, N. (2009). The attractiveness of entrepreneurship for females and males in a developing Arab Muslim country; entrepreneurial intentions in Tunisia. International Business Research, 2(3), 47–53. https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v2n3p47
[10] Fitzsimmons, J. R., & Douglas, E. J. (2011). Interaction between feasibility and desirability in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 26(4), 431–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2010.01.001
[11] Fossen, F. M. (2012). Gender differences in entrepreneurial choice and risk aversion–a decomposition based on a microeconometric model. Applied Economics, 44(14), 1795–1812. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2011.554377
[12] Gerke, A., Ianiro-Dahm, P., Muck, P., Lehmann-Willenbrock, N., & Hell, B. (2023). How Do Female Entrepreneurs Differ From Male Entrepreneurs? Distinguishing Personality Traits Throughout the Entrepreneurial Journey. The Journal of Entrepreneurship, 32(3), 525-552. https://doi.org/10.1177/09713557231210684
[13] Giordano Martínez, K. R., Herrero Crespo, Á., & Fernández-Laviada, A. (2017). Influence of perceived risk on entrepreneurial desirability and feasibility: Multidimensional approach for nascent entrepreneurs. Journal of Risk Research, 20(2), 218–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2015.1042506
[14] Guerrero, M., Rialp, J., & Urbano, D. (2008). The impact of desirability and feasibility on entrepreneurial intentions: A structural equation model. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 4, 35–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-006-0032-x
[15] Kaya, H. D. (2021). Do Business-Friendly States Attract Female Entrepreneurs? Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, 3–4, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee21.34.pp1-21
[16] Liñán, F. (2005). Development and validation of an Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ). 15th Internationalizing Entrepreneurship Education and Training Conference (2005), p. 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-010-0154-z
[17] Lopez, T., & Alvarez, C. (2019). Influence of university-related factors on students’ entrepreneurial intentions. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Venturing, 11(6), 521. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEV.2019.103751
[18] Mair, J., & Noboa, E. (2003). Social entrepreneurship: How intentions to create a social enterprise get formed, IESE Working Paper No. D/521. https://ssrn.com/abstract=462283
[19] Mmadu, B. A., & Egbule, S. (2014). Intention for entrepreneurship among students of Delta State University Abraka Nigeria: An empirical investigation. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 22(2), 196. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJESB.2014.062501
[20] Molino, M., Dolce, V., Cortese, C. G., & Ghislieri, C. (2018). Personality and social support as determinants of entrepreneurial intention. Gender differences in Italy. PloS one, 13(6), e0199924. https://doi.org/journal.pone.0199924
[21] Monica, J., & Anuradha, P. S. (2024). Entrepreneurial Attitude and Entrepreneurial Intentions of Female Engineering Students: Mediating Roles of Passion and Creativity. Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, 1–2, 19–39. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee24.12.pp19-39
[22] Mozahem, N. A. (2021). Gender differences in entrepreneurial self-efficacy: An educational perspective. The International Journal of Management Education, 19(3), 100535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100535
[23] Mueller, S. L., & Conway Dato-on, M. (2013). A cross cultural study of gender-role orientation and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 9, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-011-0187-y
[24] Nowiński, W., Haddoud, M. Y., Lančarič, D., Egerová, D., & Czeglédi, C. (2019). The impact of entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and gender on entrepreneurial intentions of university students in the Visegrad countries. Studies in Higher Education, 44(2), 361–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2017.1365359
[25] Paunović, I., & Bog, P. (2009). Uticaj veličine grupe na motivisanost polaznika u uvodnim kursevima. Prilozi, 6(1).
[26] Pelegrini, G. C., & Moraes, G. H. S. M. de. (2022). Does gender matter? A university ecosystem, self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention analysis in Brazilian universities. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 37(2), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-01-2021-0007
[27] Pergelova, A., Angulo-Ruiz, F., Manolova, T. S., & Yordanova, D. (2023). Entrepreneurship education and its gendered effects on feasibility, desirability and intentions for technology entrepreneurship among STEM students. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 15(2), 191–228. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-08-2022-0139
[28] Saadaoui, A., Mohamad, A., & Abd Rani, S. H. (2024). Investigating the Relationship between University Environment and Female Student’s Entrepreneurial Thinking in Algeria. Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, 1–2, 115–140. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee24.12.pp115-140
[29] Schlaegel, C., & Koenig, M. (2014). Determinants of Entrepreneurial Intent: A Meta–Analytic Test and Integration of Competing Models. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38(2), 291–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/etap.12087
[30] Shapero, A., & Sokol, L. (1982). Social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In C. A. Kent, D. L. Sexton, & K. H. Vesper (Eds.), Encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 72–90). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1497759
[31] Slavinski, T., Todorović, M., Vukmirović, V., & Montenegro, A. M. (2020). Women, entrepreneurship and education: Descriptive bibliometric analysis based on scopus database. Journal of Women's Entrepreneurship and Education, 3–4, 181–201. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee20.34.pp181-201
[32] van Ewijk, A. R., & Belghiti-Mahut, S. (2019). Context, gender and entrepreneurial intentions: How entrepreneurship education changes the equation. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 11(1), 75–98. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-05-2018-0054
[33] Westhead, P., & Solesvik, M. Z. (2016). Entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intention: Do female students benefit? International Small Business Journal, 34(8), 979–1003. https://doi.org/10.1177/026624261561253
[34] Wilson, F., Kickul, J., & Marlino, D. (2007). Gender, entrepreneurial self–efficacy, and entrepreneurial career intentions: Implications for entrepreneurship education. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 387–406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00179.x