Profiling the Contemporary Brazilian Tourism Entrepreneur: A Gender Analysis
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Sep 29, 2017
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Abstract
Drawing on the contemporary shift in tourism research to a sociological focus on the producers within tourism, this study profiles Brazilian tourism entrepreneurs through a gender lens. Empirical evidence collected via online questionnaires administered to tourism managers on a nation-wide scale, provides the data on entrepreneurial characteristics such as age, income and educational level. Quantitative analysis utilizing SPSS to correlate variables and test statistical significance is combined with a thorough interweaving of literature on tourism entrepreneurship and gender. This results in a uniquely insightful account of how tourism entrepreneurs’ profiles are influenced by gendered socio-economic structures. Findings, ranging from the high number of male entrepreneurs that earn more than 13 minimum wages, the low number of female entrepreneurs aged 35-39, to the occupational segregation as manifested in a male-dominated transport industry, illustrate how gender silently operates to define entrepreneurial positions. New conceptualizations of entrepreneurship evolve to incorporate the conflicting pressures between the need to conform to entrenched gender roles and simultaneously provide economically in the increasingly unstable and demanding economic landscape. These alterations prompt for the development of tourism policies that recognize and address these gendered influences within tourism development.
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References
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[33] Korpi, W., Ferrarini, T., & Englund, S. 2013. Women’s Opportunities under Different Family Policy Constellations: Gender, Class, and Inequality Tradeoffs in Western Countries Re-examined. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society , 20 (1 ), 1–40. doi:10.1093/sp/jxs028
[34] Macedo, M. de M., Greco, S. M. de S. S., Andreassi, T., Antunes, A. L., Borges, C., Pansarella, L., … Nassif, V. 2014. GEM Brasil 2013 Report. London. Retrieved from http://www.gemconsortium.org/docs/3378/gem-brasil-2013-report
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[36] Machado, H. P. V., St-Cyr, L., Mione, A., & Alves, M. C. M. 2003. O processo de criação de empresas por mulheres. RAE-Eletrônica, 2(2), 1–22.
[37] Mannon, S. E. 2006. Love in the time of neo-liberalism. Gender & Society, 20, 511–530.
[38] Marlow, S., Henry, C., & Carter, S. (2009). Exploring the impact of gender upon women’s business ownership. International Small Business Journal, 27, 139–148.
[39] Marlow, S., & McAdam, M. (2013). Gender and entrepreneurship: Advancing debate and challenging myths; exploring the mystery of the under-performing female entrepreneur. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 19, 114–124.
[40] Mazzucato, M. 2013. The entrepreneurial state: Debunking public vs. private sector myths. Anthem Press.
[41] Minniti, M., & Naude, W. 2010. What Do We Know About The Patterns and Determinants of Female Entrepreneurship Across Countries[quest]. EUR J DEV RES, 22(3), 277–293. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2010.17
[42] Mirchandani, K. 1999. Feminist insight on gendered work: New directions in research on women and entrepreneurship. Gender, Work & Organization, 6, 224–235.
[43] Momsen, J. H. 2004. Gender and development. New York: Routledge.
[44] Morrison, A., Carlsen, J., & Weber, P. (2010). Small tourism business research change and evolution. International Journal of Tourism Research, 12(3), 739–749.
[45] Prettner, K., Bloom, D. E., & Strulik, H. 2013. Declining fertility and economic well-being: Do education and health ride to the rescue? Labour Economics, 22(0), 70–79. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2012.07.001
[46] Puppim de Oliveira, J. A. 2003. Governmental responses to tourism development: three Brazilian case studies. Tourism Management, 24(1), 97–110. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(02)00046-8
[47] Rietz, A. Du, & Henrekson, M. 2000. Testing the Female Underperformance Hypothesis. Small Business Economics, 14, 1–10.
[48] Robinson, P. B., & Sexton, E. A. 1994. The effect of education and experience on self-employment success. Journal of Business Venturing, 9(2), 141–156. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0883-9026(94)90006-X
[49] Rosa, P., Carter, S., & Hamilton, D. 1996. Gender as a Determinant of Small Business Performance: Insights from a British Study. Small Business Economics, 8(6), 463–478.
[50] Saridakis, G., Marlow, S., & Storey, D. J. 2014. Do different factors explain male and female self-employment rates? Journal of Business Venturing, 29(3), 345–362. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2013.04.004
[51] Schwab, K., Brende, B., Zahidi, S., Bekhouche, Y., Guinault, A., Soo, A., & Tyson, L. D. 2013. The Global Gender Gap Report–2013. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GenderGap_Report_2013.pdf
[52] Smith-Hunter, A. E., & Leone, J. 2010. Evidence on the Characteristics of Women Entrepreneurs in Brazil: An Empirical Analysis. International Journal of Management and Marketing Research, Vol. 3, 3(1), 85–102.
[53] Stephen, L. 2005. Women’s weaving cooperatives in Oaxaca: An indigenous response to neoliberalism. Critique of Anthropology, 25, 253–278.
[54] Tanturri, M. L., & Mencarini, L. 2005. Exploring differences and similarities among women of different parities in Italy. In XXV International population conference. Tours, France.
[55] Tucker, H. 2007. Undoing Shame: Tourism and Women’s Work in Turkey. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 5(2): 87–105. doi:10.2167/jtcc089.0
[56] UNWTO. 2011. Global Report on Women in Tourism 2010. Madrid: UNWTO.
[57] UNWTO-UN. 2011. Global report on women in tourism 2010. Madrid.
[58] Vale, G. M. V., Serafim, A. C. F., & Teodósio, A. dos S. de S. 2011. Gênero, Imersão e Empreendedorismo: Sexo Frágil, Laços Fortes? Revista de Administração Contemporânea - Anpad, 15(4), 631–649.
[59] Verheul, I., Stel, A. Van, & Thurik, R. 2006. Explaining female and male entrepreneurship at the country level. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 18(2), 151–183. doi:10.1080/08985620500532053
[60] Walker, A., & Maltby, T. 2012. Active ageing: A strategic policy solution to demographic ageing in the European Union. International Journal of Social Welfare, 21, S117–S130. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2012.00871.x
[61] World Economic Forum. 2013. The Global Gender Gap Report 2013 - Insight Report. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
[62] World Travel & Tourism Council. 2013. Gender equality and youth employment: Travel & Tourism as a key employer of women and young people. World Travel & Tourism Council,. Retrieved from http://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/policy research/gender_equality_and_youth_employment_final.pdf
[2] Aitchison, C. 2009. Gender and tourism discourses: Advancing the gender project in tourism studies. In T. Jamal & M. Robinson (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of tourism studies. Los Angeles; London: SAGE.
[3] Árias, A., & Barbosa, A. 2007. Caracterização da Mão-de-Obra do Mercado Formal de Trabalho do Setor Turismo-Estimativas Baseadas nos Dados da Rais de 2004. Rio de Janeiro. Retrieved from http://www.ipea.gov.br/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4547
[4] Ateljevic, I. 2009. Women Empowerment Entrepreneurship Nexus in Tourism: Processes of Social Innovation. In J. Ateljevic & S. J. Page (Eds.), Tourism and Entrepreneurship: International Perspectives (pp. 75–90). Burlington: Elsevier.
[5] Bakas, F. E. 2014. Tourism, female entrepreneurs and gender: Crafting economic realities in rural Greece. Dunedin, New Zealand: University of Otago.
[6] Baum, T. 2013. International Perspectives on Women and Work in Hotels, Catering and Tourism. Geneva.
[7] Beauvoir, S. D., Parshley, H. M., & Crosland, M. 2000. The second sex. London: David Campbell Publishers.
[8] Bichara, I. D., da Rocha Lordelo, E., Santos, A. K., & Pontes, F. A. R. 2012. Play and gender issues in rural and urban Brazilian contexts. Cultural Dynamics of Women’s Lives. Charlotte, NC, 197–208.
[9] Bruni, A., Gherardi, S., & Poggio, B. 2004. Entrepreneur-mentality, gender and the study of women entrepreneurs. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 17(3), 256–268.
[10] Bruni, A., Poggio, B., & Gherardi, S. 2005. Gender and entrepreneurship: an ethnographic approach. New York: Routledge.
[11] Brush, C. G., Bruin, A. de, & Welter, F. 2009. A gender-aware framework for women’s entrepreneurship. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 1(1), 8–24.
[12] Bygrave, W. D. 1997. The portable MBA in entrepreneurship. New York: J. Wiley & Sons.
[13] Cebrián, I., & Moreno, G. 2015. The Effects of Gender Differences in Career Interruptions on the Gender Wage Gap in Spain. Feminist Economics, 1–27. doi:10.1080/13545701.2015.1008534
[14] Cohen, J. H. 2001. Textile, tourism and community development. Annals of Tourism Research, 28, 378–398.
[15] Cone, C. A. 1995. Crafting selves: The lives of two mayan women. Annals of Tourism Research, 22, 314–327.
[16] Cooke, A., Mills, T. A., & Lavender, T. 2012. Advanced maternal age: Delayed childbearing is rarely a conscious choice: A qualitative study of women’s views and experiences. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 49(1), 30–39. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2011.07.013
[17] Costa, C., Caçador, S., Carvalho, I., Breda, Z., & Costa, R. 2013. The Influence of Gender and Education-Related Variables on Career Development: The Case of Portuguese and Brazilian Tourism Graduates. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 13(2), 148–169. doi:10.1080/15313220.2013.786338
[18] Costa, H. A., Costa, C., Breda, Z., Caçador, S., Carvalho, I., & Vieira, R. 2013. Women in Brazil with higher education in tourism: Preliminary results of the Gentour Project. Revista Turismo & Desenvolvimento/Journal of Tourism & Development, 19, 53–66.
[19] Davis, A. E., & Shaver, K. G. 2012. Understanding Gendered Variations in Business Growth Intentions Across the Life Course. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(3), 495–512.
[20] De Bruin, A., Brush, C. G., & Welter, F. 2007. Advancing a Framework for Coherent Research on Women’s Entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 31(3), 323–339. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00176.x
[21] Federici, S. 2012. Revolution at point zero: housework, reproduction, and feminist struggle. London, UK: PM Press.
[22] Fenstermaker, S., & West, C. 2013. Doing gender doing difference. Hoboken: Francis Taylor.
[23] Ferguson, L. 2007. The United Nations World Tourism Organisation. New Political Economy, 12, 557–568.
[24] Ferguson, L. 2011. Promoting gender equality and empowering women? Tourism and the third Millennium Development Goal. Current Issues in Tourism, 14(3), 235–249. doi:Pii 934837855 Doi 10.1080/13683500.2011.555522
[25] Frimmel, W., Halla, M., & Winter-Ebmer, R. 2013. Assortative mating and divorce: evidence from Austrian register data. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society), 176(4), 907–929. doi:10.1111/j.1467-985X.2012.01070.x
[26] Green, E., & Cohen, L. 1995. `Women’s business': Are women entrepreneurs breaking new. Journal of Gender Studies, 4, 297.
[27] IBGE. 2014. Estatísticas do Cadastro Central de Empresas 2012 (CEMPRE). Retrieved March 5, 2015, from http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/economia/cadastroempresa/2012/
[28] Jonathan, E. G. 2005. Mulheres empreendedoras: medos, conquistas e qualidade de vida. Psicologia Em Estudo. scielo.
[29] Jonathan, E. G. 2011. Mulheres empreendedoras: o desafio da escolha do empreendedorismo e o exercício do poder. Psicologia Clínica. scielo.
[30] Kabeer, N. 1999. Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment. Development and Change, 30, 435–464.
[31] Kelley, D. J., Brush, C. G., Greene, P. G., & Litovsky, Y. 2013. GEM 2012 Women’s Report. Retrieved from http://www.gemconsortium.org/docs/2825/gem-2012-womens-report
[32] Kerfoot, D., & Miller, C. 2010. Organizing Entrepreneurship? Women’s Invisibility in Self-employment. (P. Lewis & R. Simpson, Eds.)Revealing and Concealing Gender: Issues of Visibility in Organizations. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
[33] Korpi, W., Ferrarini, T., & Englund, S. 2013. Women’s Opportunities under Different Family Policy Constellations: Gender, Class, and Inequality Tradeoffs in Western Countries Re-examined. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society , 20 (1 ), 1–40. doi:10.1093/sp/jxs028
[34] Macedo, M. de M., Greco, S. M. de S. S., Andreassi, T., Antunes, A. L., Borges, C., Pansarella, L., … Nassif, V. 2014. GEM Brasil 2013 Report. London. Retrieved from http://www.gemconsortium.org/docs/3378/gem-brasil-2013-report
[35] Machado, H. P. V., Barros, G. V. de, & Palhano, D. Y. M. 2003. Conhecendo a empreendedora norte-paranaense: perfil, porte das empresas e dificuldades de gerenciamento. In Anais do 3o EGEPE Encontro de Empreendedorismo e Gestão de Pequenas Empresas. (pp. 171–197). Brasília: UEM/UEL/UNB.
[36] Machado, H. P. V., St-Cyr, L., Mione, A., & Alves, M. C. M. 2003. O processo de criação de empresas por mulheres. RAE-Eletrônica, 2(2), 1–22.
[37] Mannon, S. E. 2006. Love in the time of neo-liberalism. Gender & Society, 20, 511–530.
[38] Marlow, S., Henry, C., & Carter, S. (2009). Exploring the impact of gender upon women’s business ownership. International Small Business Journal, 27, 139–148.
[39] Marlow, S., & McAdam, M. (2013). Gender and entrepreneurship: Advancing debate and challenging myths; exploring the mystery of the under-performing female entrepreneur. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 19, 114–124.
[40] Mazzucato, M. 2013. The entrepreneurial state: Debunking public vs. private sector myths. Anthem Press.
[41] Minniti, M., & Naude, W. 2010. What Do We Know About The Patterns and Determinants of Female Entrepreneurship Across Countries[quest]. EUR J DEV RES, 22(3), 277–293. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2010.17
[42] Mirchandani, K. 1999. Feminist insight on gendered work: New directions in research on women and entrepreneurship. Gender, Work & Organization, 6, 224–235.
[43] Momsen, J. H. 2004. Gender and development. New York: Routledge.
[44] Morrison, A., Carlsen, J., & Weber, P. (2010). Small tourism business research change and evolution. International Journal of Tourism Research, 12(3), 739–749.
[45] Prettner, K., Bloom, D. E., & Strulik, H. 2013. Declining fertility and economic well-being: Do education and health ride to the rescue? Labour Economics, 22(0), 70–79. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2012.07.001
[46] Puppim de Oliveira, J. A. 2003. Governmental responses to tourism development: three Brazilian case studies. Tourism Management, 24(1), 97–110. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(02)00046-8
[47] Rietz, A. Du, & Henrekson, M. 2000. Testing the Female Underperformance Hypothesis. Small Business Economics, 14, 1–10.
[48] Robinson, P. B., & Sexton, E. A. 1994. The effect of education and experience on self-employment success. Journal of Business Venturing, 9(2), 141–156. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0883-9026(94)90006-X
[49] Rosa, P., Carter, S., & Hamilton, D. 1996. Gender as a Determinant of Small Business Performance: Insights from a British Study. Small Business Economics, 8(6), 463–478.
[50] Saridakis, G., Marlow, S., & Storey, D. J. 2014. Do different factors explain male and female self-employment rates? Journal of Business Venturing, 29(3), 345–362. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2013.04.004
[51] Schwab, K., Brende, B., Zahidi, S., Bekhouche, Y., Guinault, A., Soo, A., & Tyson, L. D. 2013. The Global Gender Gap Report–2013. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GenderGap_Report_2013.pdf
[52] Smith-Hunter, A. E., & Leone, J. 2010. Evidence on the Characteristics of Women Entrepreneurs in Brazil: An Empirical Analysis. International Journal of Management and Marketing Research, Vol. 3, 3(1), 85–102.
[53] Stephen, L. 2005. Women’s weaving cooperatives in Oaxaca: An indigenous response to neoliberalism. Critique of Anthropology, 25, 253–278.
[54] Tanturri, M. L., & Mencarini, L. 2005. Exploring differences and similarities among women of different parities in Italy. In XXV International population conference. Tours, France.
[55] Tucker, H. 2007. Undoing Shame: Tourism and Women’s Work in Turkey. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 5(2): 87–105. doi:10.2167/jtcc089.0
[56] UNWTO. 2011. Global Report on Women in Tourism 2010. Madrid: UNWTO.
[57] UNWTO-UN. 2011. Global report on women in tourism 2010. Madrid.
[58] Vale, G. M. V., Serafim, A. C. F., & Teodósio, A. dos S. de S. 2011. Gênero, Imersão e Empreendedorismo: Sexo Frágil, Laços Fortes? Revista de Administração Contemporânea - Anpad, 15(4), 631–649.
[59] Verheul, I., Stel, A. Van, & Thurik, R. 2006. Explaining female and male entrepreneurship at the country level. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 18(2), 151–183. doi:10.1080/08985620500532053
[60] Walker, A., & Maltby, T. 2012. Active ageing: A strategic policy solution to demographic ageing in the European Union. International Journal of Social Welfare, 21, S117–S130. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2012.00871.x
[61] World Economic Forum. 2013. The Global Gender Gap Report 2013 - Insight Report. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
[62] World Travel & Tourism Council. 2013. Gender equality and youth employment: Travel & Tourism as a key employer of women and young people. World Travel & Tourism Council,. Retrieved from http://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/policy research/gender_equality_and_youth_employment_final.pdf