Gender Differences and Attitudes in Entrepreneurial Intentions: the Role of Career Choice
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Sep 27, 2017
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Abstract
Gender differences in entrepreneurial intentions and agentic traits frequently linked to entrepreneurship (locus of control, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, risk-taking propensity, and proactiveness) were examined using a sample of Spanish university students, 535 women and 283 men. Self-reported data were collected through a questionnaire consisting of several scales. MANOVA results showed gender differences in entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial self-efficacy, in the sense that men felt themselves more efficient and oriented to create a new venture than women. Nevertheless, major area and age explained differences in the variables studied better than gender.
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References
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[29] Hoffmann, O., D., Cropley, A.. Cropley, L., Nguyen, and P., Swatman. 2005. “Creativity, Requirements and Persectives.” Australian Journal of Information Systems, 13(1): 159 – 175.
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[36] Krueger, Norris, F., Michael, D., Reilly, and Alan L. Carsrud. 2000. “Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions.” Journal of Business Venturing, 15(5-6): 411-432.
[37] Levenson, Hanna. 1974. “Activism and powerful others: Distinctions within the concept of internal-external control.” Journal of Personality Assessment, 38, 377-383.
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[40] Markman, Gideon, D., Robert, A., Baron, and David B. Balkin. 2005. “Are perseverance and self-efficacy costless? Assessing entrepreneurs’ regretful thinking.” Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 26(1): 1-19.
[41] McClelland, David C. 1961. The achieving society. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
[42] McClelland, Emma, Janine, Swail, Jim, Bell, and Patrick Ibbotson. 2005. “Following the pathway of female entrepreneurs. A six country investigation.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 11(2): 84-107.
[43] National Institute of Statistic [INE]. 2006. http://www.ine.es/inebmenu/mnu_educa.htm.(Accessed, November 2007)
[44] Perry, Chad.1990. “After further sightings of the Heffalump.” Journal of Managerial Psychology, 5(2): 22-31.
[45] Robinson, Peter, B., David, V., Stimpson, Jonathan, C., Huefner, and Keith H. Hunt. 1991. “An attitude approach to the prediction of entrepreneurship.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 9(4): 13-31.
[46] Rohrmann, B. 1997. Risk Orientation Questionnaire: Attitudes towards risk decisions (pre-test version). Non-published manuscript, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
[47] Rotter, Julian, B. 1966. “Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.” Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 80. Whole No. 609.
[48] Sánchez, J.C., and Carlo Odoardi. 2008. “Gender differences in entrepreneurial intentions: the case of Spain”. Rivista di Psicologia del Lavoro e dell’Organizzazione, 14(4): 1-25.
[49] Sánchez, J.C. 2009. “Social learning and entrepreneurial intentions: A comparative study between Mexico, Spain and Portugal”. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 41(1): 107-117.
[50] Sánchez, J.C. 2010. “Evaluation of entrepreneurial personality: factorial validity of entrepreneurial orientation questionnaire (COE)”. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 42(1): 32-52.
[51] Sánchez, J.C. 2011. “University training for entrepreneurial competencies: Its impact on intention of venture creation”. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 7: 239–254.
[52] Seibert, Scott, E., Michael J., Crant, and Maria, L. Kraimer. 1999. “Proactive personality and career success.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(3): 416-427.
[53] Seibert, Scott, E., Maria, L., Kraimer, and Michael J. Crant. 2001. “What do proactive people do? A longitudinal model linking proactive personality and career success.” Personnel Psychology, 54(4): 854-874.
[54] Sexton, Donald, L., and Nancy Bowman-Upton. 1990. “Female and male entrepreneurs: Psychological characteristics and their role in gender-related discrimination”. Journal of Business Venturing, 5(1): 29-36.
[55] Shapero, Albert, and Lisa Sokol. 1982. “The social dimensions of entrepreneurship”. In Encyclopaedia of Entrepreneurship, eds C. Kent, D. Sexton, and K. H. Vesper, 72-90. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
[56] Stewart, Wayne, H., and Philip L. Roth. 2001. “Risk propensity differences between entrepreneurs and managers: A meta-analytic review.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 145-153.
[57] Stewart, Wayne, H., and Philip L. Roth. 2004. “Data quality affects meta-analytic conclusions: A response to Miner and Raju (2004) concerning entrepreneurial risk propensity.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1): 14-21.
[58] Walters, L., M., McCabe, D., Kiellerup, and S. Kiellerup. 2002. “The role of formal mentoring on business success and self-esteem in participants of a new-business start-up program.” Journal of Business and Psychology, 17(1): 107-121.
[59] Wilson, Fiona, Deborah, Marlino, and Jill Kickul. 2004. “Our entrepreneurial future: Examining the diverse attitudes and motivations of teens across gender and ethnic identity.” Journal of Developemental Entrepreneurship, 9(3): 177-197.
[60] Zhao, Hao, Scott, E., Seibert, and Gerald E. Hills. 2005. “The mediating role of self-efficacy in the development of entrepreneurial intentions.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6): 1265-1272.
[2] Ajzen, Icek. 1991.”The theory of planned behavior.” Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 50: 179-211.
[3] Allen, Elaine, I. E., Nan, Langowitz, and Maria Minniti. 2006. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. 2006 report on women and entrepreneurship. Babson Park, MA and London, UK: Babson College and London Business School.
[4] Bandura, Albert. 1986. The social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
[5] Bandura, Albert. 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, MA: W.H. Freeman & Co.
[6] Bateman, Thomas, S., and Michael J.Crant. 1993. “The proactive component of organizational behavior.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14(2): 103-118.
[7] Becherer, Richard, C., and John G. Mauer. 1999. “The proactive personality disposition and entrepreneurial behavior among small business presidents.” Journal of Small Business Management, 37(1): 28-36.
[8] Begley, Thomas, M., and David P. Boyd. 1987. “Psychological characteristics associated with performance in entrepreneurial firms and smaller businesses.” Journal of Business Venturing, 2(1): 79-93.
[9] Behling, O., and K. S. Law. 2000. Translating questionnaires and other research instruments: Problems and solutions. London, UK: Sage publications.
[10] Bird, Barbara. 1988. “Implementing entrepreneurial ideas: The case of intention.” Academy of Management Review, 13(3): 442-453.
[11] Brockhaus, Robert H. 1982. “The psychology of the entrepreneur”. In Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship, eds C. Kent, D. Sexton, and K. H. Vesper, 39-57. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
[12] Brockhaus, Robert H., and Pamela S. Horwitz. 1986. „The psychology of the entrepreneur”. In The art and science of entrepreneurship, eds D. Sexton and R. L. Smillor, 35-48. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing.
[13] Bruni, Attila, Silvia, Gherardi, and Barbara Poggio. 2004. “Entrepreneur-mentality, gender and the study of women entrepreneurs.” Journal of Organizational Change Management, 17(3): 256-268.
[14] Cable, Daniel, M., and Timothy A. Judge. 1996. “Person-organization fit, job choice decisions, and organizational entry.” Organizational behavior and Human Decision Processes¸ 67(3): 294-311.
[15] Catley, Suzanne., and Robert T. Hamilton. 1998. “Small business development and gender of owner.” Journal of Management Development, 17(1): 75-82.
[16] Chen, Chao, C., Patricia, Greene, G., and Ann Crick. 1998. “Does entrepreneurial self-efficacy distinguish entrepreneurs from managers?” Journal of Business Venturing, 13(4): 295-316.
[17] Costa, Paul, Antonio, Terracciano, and Robert R. McCrae. 2001. “Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(2): 322-331.
[18] Crant, Michael, J. 1996. “The proactive personality scale as a predictor of entrepreneurial intentions.” Journal of Small Business Management, 34(3): 42-49.
[19] Crant, Michael, J., and Thomas S. Bateman. (2000). “Charismatic leadership viewed from above: The impact of proactive personality.” Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(1): 63-75.
[20] Cromie, Stanley.1987. “Motivations of aspiring male and female entrepreneurs.” Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 8(3): 251-261.
[21] de Miguel Negredo, Adelia.2005. “Diferencias de edad y género en el NEO-PI-R en dos muestras con distinto nivel académico [Gender and age-groups differences in NEO-PI-R across two samples (undergraduate university students and adults)]”. Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 5(1):13-31.
[22] De Caroli, Maria E. and E.Sagone. 2009. “Flessibilmente.Stereotipi di genere, creatività e contesti scolastici a confronto”, in Pensare, essere, fare creativamente. Riflessioni teoriche ed indagini empiriche in età evoltiva, ed. M.E De Caroli, 143-175. Milano, FrancoAngeli.
[23] De Noble, Alex F., Jung, Dong J., and Ehrlich B. Sanford. 1999. “Entrepreneurial self-efficacy: The development of a measure and its relationship to entrepreneurial action.” In Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research-1999, eds P. D. Reynolds, W. D. Bygrave, S. Manigart, C. M. Manson, G. D. Meyer, H. J. Sapienza, and K. S. Shaver, 73-87. Wellesley, MA: Babson College.
[24] Eccles-Parsons, Jacqueline S., T., F., Adler, R., Futterman, S., B., Goff, C., M., Kaczala, J., L., Meece. 1983. Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In Achievement and achievement motives: Psychological and sociological approaches, ed. J. T. Spence, 75-146. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.
[25] Farley, Frank. 1987. “The Farley Test for Risk Takers.” U.S. News & World Report, January 26, 64.
[26] Fassinger, Ruth. E. 1990. “Causal models of career choice in two samples of college women.”Journal of Vocational Behavior, 36: 225-248.
[27] Feingold, Alan. 1994. “Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis.” Psychological Bulletin, 116: 429-434.
[28] Gatewood, Elizabeth, J., Kelly, G., Shaver, and William B. Gartner. 1995. “A longitudinal study of cognitive factors influencing start-up behaviors and success at venture creation.” Journal of Business Venturing, 10(5):371-391.
[29] Hoffmann, O., D., Cropley, A.. Cropley, L., Nguyen, and P., Swatman. 2005. “Creativity, Requirements and Persectives.” Australian Journal of Information Systems, 13(1): 159 – 175.
[30] Hoffman, Donna, L., Thomas, P., Novak, and Ann E Schlosser. 2003. “Consumer attitudes toward software filters and online content ratings: A policy analysis.” Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 22(1): 41-57.
[31] Jennings, Reg, Charles, Cox, and Cary L. Cooper. 1994. Business elites: The psychology of entrepreneurs and intrapreneurs. London, UK: Routledge.
[32] Jome, LaRae M., Mary, P., Donahue, and Laura A. Siegel. 2006. “Working in the uncharted technology frontier: Characteristics of women web entrepreneurs.” Journal of Business and Psychology, 21(1): 127-147.
[33] Kourilsky, Marilyn, L., and William B. Walstad. 1998. “Entrepreneurship and female youth: Knowledge, attitudes, gender differences, and educational practices.” Journal of Business venturing, 13(1): 77-88.
[34] Krueger, Norris, F. 1993. The impact of prior entrepreneurial exposure on perceptions of new venture feasibility and desirability. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(1): 5-21.
[35] Krueger, Norris, F. 2000. “The cognitive infrastructure of opportunity emergence.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 24(3): 5-23.
[36] Krueger, Norris, F., Michael, D., Reilly, and Alan L. Carsrud. 2000. “Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions.” Journal of Business Venturing, 15(5-6): 411-432.
[37] Levenson, Hanna. 1974. “Activism and powerful others: Distinctions within the concept of internal-external control.” Journal of Personality Assessment, 38, 377-383.
[38] Licciardello, O., A., Marletta, M., Mauceri, and C., Castiglione. 2010. “Self efficacy, rappresentazioni del Sé e formazione universitaria in giovani studenti dell’Ateneo catanese”. In Atti, X Congresso Nazionale A.I.P.- Sezione di Psicologia Sociale, eds S. Russo, and E. Viola, 95-96, Torino, A.I.P.-Sezione di Psicologia Sociale.
[39] Markman, Gideon, D., David, B., Balkin, and Robert A Baron. 2003. “Inventors and new venture formation: The effects of general self-efficacy and regretful thinking.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 27(2):149-165.
[40] Markman, Gideon, D., Robert, A., Baron, and David B. Balkin. 2005. “Are perseverance and self-efficacy costless? Assessing entrepreneurs’ regretful thinking.” Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 26(1): 1-19.
[41] McClelland, David C. 1961. The achieving society. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
[42] McClelland, Emma, Janine, Swail, Jim, Bell, and Patrick Ibbotson. 2005. “Following the pathway of female entrepreneurs. A six country investigation.” International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 11(2): 84-107.
[43] National Institute of Statistic [INE]. 2006. http://www.ine.es/inebmenu/mnu_educa.htm.(Accessed, November 2007)
[44] Perry, Chad.1990. “After further sightings of the Heffalump.” Journal of Managerial Psychology, 5(2): 22-31.
[45] Robinson, Peter, B., David, V., Stimpson, Jonathan, C., Huefner, and Keith H. Hunt. 1991. “An attitude approach to the prediction of entrepreneurship.” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 9(4): 13-31.
[46] Rohrmann, B. 1997. Risk Orientation Questionnaire: Attitudes towards risk decisions (pre-test version). Non-published manuscript, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
[47] Rotter, Julian, B. 1966. “Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.” Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 80. Whole No. 609.
[48] Sánchez, J.C., and Carlo Odoardi. 2008. “Gender differences in entrepreneurial intentions: the case of Spain”. Rivista di Psicologia del Lavoro e dell’Organizzazione, 14(4): 1-25.
[49] Sánchez, J.C. 2009. “Social learning and entrepreneurial intentions: A comparative study between Mexico, Spain and Portugal”. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 41(1): 107-117.
[50] Sánchez, J.C. 2010. “Evaluation of entrepreneurial personality: factorial validity of entrepreneurial orientation questionnaire (COE)”. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 42(1): 32-52.
[51] Sánchez, J.C. 2011. “University training for entrepreneurial competencies: Its impact on intention of venture creation”. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 7: 239–254.
[52] Seibert, Scott, E., Michael J., Crant, and Maria, L. Kraimer. 1999. “Proactive personality and career success.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(3): 416-427.
[53] Seibert, Scott, E., Maria, L., Kraimer, and Michael J. Crant. 2001. “What do proactive people do? A longitudinal model linking proactive personality and career success.” Personnel Psychology, 54(4): 854-874.
[54] Sexton, Donald, L., and Nancy Bowman-Upton. 1990. “Female and male entrepreneurs: Psychological characteristics and their role in gender-related discrimination”. Journal of Business Venturing, 5(1): 29-36.
[55] Shapero, Albert, and Lisa Sokol. 1982. “The social dimensions of entrepreneurship”. In Encyclopaedia of Entrepreneurship, eds C. Kent, D. Sexton, and K. H. Vesper, 72-90. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
[56] Stewart, Wayne, H., and Philip L. Roth. 2001. “Risk propensity differences between entrepreneurs and managers: A meta-analytic review.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 145-153.
[57] Stewart, Wayne, H., and Philip L. Roth. 2004. “Data quality affects meta-analytic conclusions: A response to Miner and Raju (2004) concerning entrepreneurial risk propensity.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1): 14-21.
[58] Walters, L., M., McCabe, D., Kiellerup, and S. Kiellerup. 2002. “The role of formal mentoring on business success and self-esteem in participants of a new-business start-up program.” Journal of Business and Psychology, 17(1): 107-121.
[59] Wilson, Fiona, Deborah, Marlino, and Jill Kickul. 2004. “Our entrepreneurial future: Examining the diverse attitudes and motivations of teens across gender and ethnic identity.” Journal of Developemental Entrepreneurship, 9(3): 177-197.
[60] Zhao, Hao, Scott, E., Seibert, and Gerald E. Hills. 2005. “The mediating role of self-efficacy in the development of entrepreneurial intentions.” Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6): 1265-1272.