Exploring Gender Disparities in Digital Skills: Evidence from the Serbian Tourism Sector
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Abstract
The paper examines the digital skills of key stakeholders in the Serbian tourism industry (supply side) to identify potential gender gaps in digital proficiency. Employing a cross-sectional survey of 418 participants within the tourism industry, we utilized binomial logistic regression to parse out the effects of gender relative to other socio-demographic variables on digital skills. The descriptive results based on DigComp 2.0 methodology reveal notable gender differences, with women showing higher levels of information and communication skills but lagging men in problem-solving and content manipulation skills. However, the binomial logistic regression analysis indicates that gender does not significantly predict digital skill levels in the Serbian tourism sector. Instead, age and education are significant factors, with older individuals less likely to possess advanced digital skills and higher education levels correlating with greater digital proficiency. These findings underscore the critical role of education (formal and informal) in digital skills building, suggesting that comprehensive and targeted educational initiatives could effectively enhance digital skills and competencies across the sector.
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References
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[28] Kulkarni, L. & Ghosh, A. (2021). Gender disparity in the digitalization of financial services: challenges and promises for women’s financial inclusion in India. Gender, Technology and Development, 25(2), 233-250.
[29] Laanpere, M. (2019). Recommendations on assessment tools for monitoring digital literacy within UNESCO’s Digital Literacy Global Framework. UNESCO Institute for Statistics Information, Paper No. 56, Montreal. https://doi.org/10.15220/2019-56-en
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[32] Lazić, M., Vukmirović, V., Banović, J., Simović, V., & Paunović, M. (2023b). Digital competences as a precondition for an inclusive digital economy – Is there a gender gap among persons with disabilities in Serbia?. Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education, 1-2, 51-71. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee23.12.pp51-71
[33] Lestaria, A. P. & Sunarto, S. (2018). Digital gender gap pattern in Indonesia. E3S Web of Conferences, 73, 11007.
[34] Losh, S. (2004). Gender, Educational, and Occupational Digital Gaps 1983-2002. Social Science Computer Review, 22, 152-166.
[35] Majranović, J., Domazet, I., Miljković, J. (2023). Higher Education Branding through Instrumental Values. Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education, 3-4. 75-94. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee23.34.pp75-94
[36] Martínez-Cantos, J.L. (2017). Digital skills gaps: A pending subject for gender digital inclusion in the European Union. European Journal of Communication, 32(5), 419-438.
[37] Marx, S., Freundlich, H., Klotz, M., Kylänen, M., Niedoszytko, G., Swacha, J., & Vollerthum, A. (2021). Towards an Online Learning Community on Digitalization in Tourism. EMOOCs 2021, Potsdam, Universitätsverlag Potsdam. https://doi.org/10.25932/PUBLISHUP-51598
[38] Montuori, C., Ronconi, L., Vardanega, T. & Arfé, B. (2022) Exploring Gender Differences in Coding at the Beginning of Primary School. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 887280.
[39] Nakajima, N., Jung, H., Pradhan, M., Hasan, A., Kinnell, A., & Brinkman, S. (2016). Gender Gaps in Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Skills in Early Primary Grades: Evidence from Rural Indonesia. Policy Research Working Paper; No. 7833. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[40] Noor, A., Asghar, Z., Sarwar, H.& Arfeen, I. (2021). Role of the ICT in Women Empowerment and Achieving SDGs: A Case Study of Women Labor Force in Developing Countries. Etikonomi, 20(2), 339–348. https://doi.org/10.15408/etk.v20i2.22045.
[41] OECD. (2022). Tourism Trends and Policies. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/a94c5f34-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/a94c5f34-en
[42] Palomares-Ruiz, A., Cebrián-Martínez, A., García-Toledano, E. & López-Parra, E. (2021). Digital gender gap in university education in Spain. Study of a case for paired samples. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 173, 1-9.
[43] Petković, G., Bradić-Martinović, A. & Lazić, M. (2024) Skills development as an indicator of the Serbian tourism digitalization progress. Ekonomika preduzeća, 72(1-2), 137-149.
[44] Radović-Marković, M. & Živanović, B. (2019) Fostering Green Entrepreneurship and Women’s Empowerment through Education and Banks’ Investments in Tourism: Evidence from Serbia. Sustainability, 11(23), 6826..
[45] Robinson, L., Cotten, S., Ono, H., Quan‐Haase, A., Mesch, G., Chen, W., Schulz, J., Hale, T. & Stern, M. (2015). Digital inequalities and why they matter. Information Communication & Society, 18(5), 569-582.
[46] Rodriguez-Pasquín, M., Garcia-Luque, O. & Lopez-Martinez, M. (2023). Digitalization and skills in Spain: regional differences and gender gaps. Sociología y Tecnociencia, 13(2), 94-117.
[47] Sánchez Prieto, J., Trujillo Torres, J.M., Gómez García, M. & Gómez García, G. (2020) Gender and Digital Teaching Competence. Dual Vocational Education and Training. Education Sciences. 10(3), 84.
[48] Sánchez-Rivero, M., Gutiérrez‐Fernández, M., Fernández-Torres, Y., & Gallego-Sosa, C. (2023). A gender-oriented analysis of digital skills and ICT use intensity in tourism companies in Extremadura (Spain). Gender in Management: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/gm-04-2022-0147
[49] Setiawati, R., Adriani, Z., & Wediawati, B. (2022). Entrepreneurial interest in startup business based on entrepreneurial literacy and digital literacy. Jurnal Perspektif Pembiayaan Dan Pembangunan Daerah, 10(4), 235-250.
[50] Singh, S. (2017). Bridging the gender digital divide in developing countries. Journal of Children and Media, 11(2), 245–247.
[51] Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. (2019) Tourism sector publications available at https://www.stat.gov.rs/sr-latn/publikacije/
[52] Van Deursen, A., Van Dijk, J. (2010) Civil Servants’ Internet Skills: Are They Ready for E-Government?. Part of the Lecture Notes in Computer Science book series (LNISA,volume 6228). https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-14799-9_12
[53] Vasquez Huatay, K. C., Mendoza Mendoza, A. P., Farías Rodríguez, J. C., & Montes Ninaquispe, J. C. (2023). Digital Literacy in Basic Secondary School Students: A Gender Comparative Study. 2023 IEEE 3rd International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies on Education & Research (ICALTER), 1-4.
[54] Zaragoza-Sáez, P., García-Haro, M., & Buhalis, D. (2021). Developing digital skills in tourism and hospitality: A blueprint strategy from the Next Tourism Generation (NTG) Alliance. Tourism Management Perspectives, 39, 100812.
[55] Zhou, M. (2014). Gender difference in web search perceptions and behavior: Does it vary by task performance?. Computers & Education, 78, 174-184.
[2] Antonio, A. & Tuffley, D. (2014). The gender digital divide in developing countries. Future Internet, 6(4), 673-687.
[3] Arroyo, L. (2020). Implications of digital inclusion: Digitalization in terms of time use from a gender perspective. Social Inclusion, 8(2), 180-189.
[4] Banović, J. (2023). Digital Skills among Women in Tourism in Serbia. Proceedings, 85(1), 38. https://doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2023085038.
[5] Barbuta, A. & Ghetau, C. (2023). The Digital Divide and Gender Disparity: A Study of Rural Students in the Republic of Moldova. International Journal of Advanced Studies in Sexology, 5(1), 30-38.
[6] Bradić-Martinović, A. (2022). Digitalne veštine građana Srbije. Institut ekonomskih nauka. Beograd. https://www.library.ien.bg.ac.rs/index.php/monog/article/view/1554/1266
[7] Bradić-Martinović, A. & Banović, J. (2018). Assessment of Digital Skills in Serbia with Focus on Gender Gap. Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education, 1-2, 54-67.
[8] Carlisle, S., Ivanov, S., & Dijkmans, C. (2021). The digital skills divide: Evidence from the European tourism industry. Journal or Tourism Futures, 9(2), 240-266.
[9] Chetty, K., Aneja, U., Mishra, V., Gcora, N., & Josie, J. (2018). Bridging the digital divide in the G20: skills for the new age. Economics, 12. https://doi.org/10.5018/economics-ejournal.ja.2018-24
[10] Drabowicz, T. (2014). Gender and digital usage inequality among adolescents: A comparative study of 39 countries. Computers & Education, 74, 98-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.01.016
[11] EUROSTAT. (2024). Digital Skills in 2023: Impact of Education and Age. Available at https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/w/ddn-20240222-1?&
[12] European Commission. (2016). DigComp 2.0: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens. Joint Research Centre, European Commission. https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/digcomp_en
[13] Esteve-Mon, F., Llopis-Nebot, M., & Adell-Segura, J. (2020). Digital Competence and Computational Thinking of Student Teachers. International Journal of Emerging Technology in Learning, 15, 29-41. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v15i02.11588
[14] Gabidullina, E., Khalfin, A., & Khisamutdinova, A. (2022). Formation of competencies of future tourism specialists in the context of digital transformation of the educational process. Bulletin USPTU Science education economy Series economy.
[15] Grande-de-Prado, M., Cañón, R., García-Martín, S., & Cantón, I. (2020). Digital Competence and Gender: Teachers in Training. A Case Study. Future Internet, 12, 204.
[16] Hafkin, N. J. & Huyer, S. (2007). Women and gender in ICT statistics and indicators for development. Information Technologies and International Development, 4(2), 25-41.
[17] Hervé, J., Mani, S., Behrman, J., Nandi, A., Lamkang, A. S., & Laxminarayan, R. (2021). Gender Gaps in Cognitive and Noncognitive Skills: Roles of SES and Gender Attitudes. IZA Institute of Labor Economics Discussion Paper Series, No. 14132. https://docs.iza.org/dp14132.pdf.
[18] ILO. (2024). International Labour Organization. Hotels, catering and tourism sector. https://www.ilo.org/industries-and-sectors/hotels-catering-and-tourism-sector
[19] Ilomäki, L. (2011). Does Gender Have a Role in ICT Among Finnish Teachers and Students? Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 55(3), 325–340. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2011.576910.
[20] Ivanović, Đ., Simović, V., Domazet, I. & Antonijević, M. (2021). Average Matching Levels for Two DigComp Competence Areas of the Female Entrepreneurs in Serbia. Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education, 3-4. 42-60. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee21.34.pp42-60
[21] Fang, M. L., Canham, S. L., Battersby, L., Sixsmith, J., Wada, M., & Sixsmith, A. (2019). Exploring Privilege in the Digital Divide: Implications for Theory, Policy, and Practice. The Gerontologist, 59(1), e1–e15. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gny037.
[22] Friemel, T. N. (2014). The Digital Divide has Grown Old: Determinants of a Digital Divide Among Seniors. New Media & Society, 18(2), 313–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814538648
[23] Jiménez‐Hernández, D., González-Calatayud, V., Torres-Soto, A., Mayoral, A., & Morales, J. (2020). Digital Competence of Future Secondary School Teachers: Differences According to Gender, Age, and Branch of Knowledge. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229473
[24] JRC & DG EAC. (2014). Digital Skills Indicator – derived from Eurostat survey on ICT usage by Individuals, Methodological note – 2015. Retrieved January 9, 2024 from https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=14342.
[25] Kamberidou, I., & Pascall, N. (2019). The digital skills crisis: engendering technology–empowering women in cyberspace. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 4(6), 1-33.
[26] Kashyap, R., Fatehkia, M., Tamime, R. A., & Weber, I. (2020). Monitoring global digital gender inequality using the online populations of Facebook and Google. Demographic Research, 43, 779-816.
[27] Khumalo, Z. & Saurombe, M. (2022). Women taking up space: a conceptual analysis of the gender-digital divide in south Africa. Proceeding of the International Conference on Social Sciences, 8(1), 2022, 118-136.
[28] Kulkarni, L. & Ghosh, A. (2021). Gender disparity in the digitalization of financial services: challenges and promises for women’s financial inclusion in India. Gender, Technology and Development, 25(2), 233-250.
[29] Laanpere, M. (2019). Recommendations on assessment tools for monitoring digital literacy within UNESCO’s Digital Literacy Global Framework. UNESCO Institute for Statistics Information, Paper No. 56, Montreal. https://doi.org/10.15220/2019-56-en
[30] Lazić, M., Vukmirović, V. & Banović, J. (2022). Digitalne kompetencije osoba sa invaliditetom u Srbiji i uključivanje u rad na onlajn platformama (Digital Competencies of Persons with Disabilities in Serbia and Inclusion in Online Platform Work). Policy brief. Institute of Economic Sciences, Belgrade, Serbia. https://ien.bg.ac.rs/cms_upload/pages/files/7793_digcomposi_sazetak_za_javne_politike.pdf
[31] Lazić, M., Bradić-Martinović, A., & Banović, J. (2023a). Digital skills in tourism and hospitality as a precondition for the sector resilient growth: The case of Serbia. Hotel and Tourism Management, 11(1), 25-40.
[32] Lazić, M., Vukmirović, V., Banović, J., Simović, V., & Paunović, M. (2023b). Digital competences as a precondition for an inclusive digital economy – Is there a gender gap among persons with disabilities in Serbia?. Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education, 1-2, 51-71. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee23.12.pp51-71
[33] Lestaria, A. P. & Sunarto, S. (2018). Digital gender gap pattern in Indonesia. E3S Web of Conferences, 73, 11007.
[34] Losh, S. (2004). Gender, Educational, and Occupational Digital Gaps 1983-2002. Social Science Computer Review, 22, 152-166.
[35] Majranović, J., Domazet, I., Miljković, J. (2023). Higher Education Branding through Instrumental Values. Journal of Women’s Entrepreneurship and Education, 3-4. 75-94. https://doi.org/10.28934/jwee23.34.pp75-94
[36] Martínez-Cantos, J.L. (2017). Digital skills gaps: A pending subject for gender digital inclusion in the European Union. European Journal of Communication, 32(5), 419-438.
[37] Marx, S., Freundlich, H., Klotz, M., Kylänen, M., Niedoszytko, G., Swacha, J., & Vollerthum, A. (2021). Towards an Online Learning Community on Digitalization in Tourism. EMOOCs 2021, Potsdam, Universitätsverlag Potsdam. https://doi.org/10.25932/PUBLISHUP-51598
[38] Montuori, C., Ronconi, L., Vardanega, T. & Arfé, B. (2022) Exploring Gender Differences in Coding at the Beginning of Primary School. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 887280.
[39] Nakajima, N., Jung, H., Pradhan, M., Hasan, A., Kinnell, A., & Brinkman, S. (2016). Gender Gaps in Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Skills in Early Primary Grades: Evidence from Rural Indonesia. Policy Research Working Paper; No. 7833. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[40] Noor, A., Asghar, Z., Sarwar, H.& Arfeen, I. (2021). Role of the ICT in Women Empowerment and Achieving SDGs: A Case Study of Women Labor Force in Developing Countries. Etikonomi, 20(2), 339–348. https://doi.org/10.15408/etk.v20i2.22045.
[41] OECD. (2022). Tourism Trends and Policies. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/a94c5f34-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/a94c5f34-en
[42] Palomares-Ruiz, A., Cebrián-Martínez, A., García-Toledano, E. & López-Parra, E. (2021). Digital gender gap in university education in Spain. Study of a case for paired samples. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 173, 1-9.
[43] Petković, G., Bradić-Martinović, A. & Lazić, M. (2024) Skills development as an indicator of the Serbian tourism digitalization progress. Ekonomika preduzeća, 72(1-2), 137-149.
[44] Radović-Marković, M. & Živanović, B. (2019) Fostering Green Entrepreneurship and Women’s Empowerment through Education and Banks’ Investments in Tourism: Evidence from Serbia. Sustainability, 11(23), 6826..
[45] Robinson, L., Cotten, S., Ono, H., Quan‐Haase, A., Mesch, G., Chen, W., Schulz, J., Hale, T. & Stern, M. (2015). Digital inequalities and why they matter. Information Communication & Society, 18(5), 569-582.
[46] Rodriguez-Pasquín, M., Garcia-Luque, O. & Lopez-Martinez, M. (2023). Digitalization and skills in Spain: regional differences and gender gaps. Sociología y Tecnociencia, 13(2), 94-117.
[47] Sánchez Prieto, J., Trujillo Torres, J.M., Gómez García, M. & Gómez García, G. (2020) Gender and Digital Teaching Competence. Dual Vocational Education and Training. Education Sciences. 10(3), 84.
[48] Sánchez-Rivero, M., Gutiérrez‐Fernández, M., Fernández-Torres, Y., & Gallego-Sosa, C. (2023). A gender-oriented analysis of digital skills and ICT use intensity in tourism companies in Extremadura (Spain). Gender in Management: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/gm-04-2022-0147
[49] Setiawati, R., Adriani, Z., & Wediawati, B. (2022). Entrepreneurial interest in startup business based on entrepreneurial literacy and digital literacy. Jurnal Perspektif Pembiayaan Dan Pembangunan Daerah, 10(4), 235-250.
[50] Singh, S. (2017). Bridging the gender digital divide in developing countries. Journal of Children and Media, 11(2), 245–247.
[51] Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. (2019) Tourism sector publications available at https://www.stat.gov.rs/sr-latn/publikacije/
[52] Van Deursen, A., Van Dijk, J. (2010) Civil Servants’ Internet Skills: Are They Ready for E-Government?. Part of the Lecture Notes in Computer Science book series (LNISA,volume 6228). https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-14799-9_12
[53] Vasquez Huatay, K. C., Mendoza Mendoza, A. P., Farías Rodríguez, J. C., & Montes Ninaquispe, J. C. (2023). Digital Literacy in Basic Secondary School Students: A Gender Comparative Study. 2023 IEEE 3rd International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies on Education & Research (ICALTER), 1-4.
[54] Zaragoza-Sáez, P., García-Haro, M., & Buhalis, D. (2021). Developing digital skills in tourism and hospitality: A blueprint strategy from the Next Tourism Generation (NTG) Alliance. Tourism Management Perspectives, 39, 100812.
[55] Zhou, M. (2014). Gender difference in web search perceptions and behavior: Does it vary by task performance?. Computers & Education, 78, 174-184.